Week 1 – Assignment: Apply the Qualitative Method and the Research Problem

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r Academy of Management Journal
2018, Vol. 61, No. 4, 1189–1195.
https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.4004

FROM THE EDITORS

NEW WAYS OF SEEING THROUGH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research offers critical tools that ad-
vance our editorial team’s ambition to foster ‘new
ways of seeing’ (see Shaw, Bansal, & Gruber, 2017).
By building theory inductively, research based on
qualitative data offers insights that challenge taken-
for-granted theories and expose new theoretical di-
rections. As we face more wicked problems in our
world, scholars are increasingly adopting qualitative
methods to unpack these complex challenges. In the
last year, qualitative papers hit an all-time high of
20% of submissions to Academy of Management
Journal (AMJ).

Yet, effectively unpacking new theory requires
scholars to take advantage of the breadth and variety
of approaches to qualitative research. In2011, Bansal
and Corley lamented that qualitative research was
norming around a single approach—often, case-
based positivist research with systematically coded
data—and called for more methodological diversity.
As editors, we are now seeing more papers sub-
mitted with varied qualitative methods, but these
more novel approaches remain in the minority nev-
ertheless. In this editorial, we underscore Bansal
and Corley’s (2011) argument that such diversity in
qualitative research is critical to advancing our cur-
rent AMJ editorial team’s desire to foster “new ways
of seeing.” By exposing the breadth of approaches
covered by the single label of “qualitative research,”
we hope to motivate researchers to more fully em-
brace opportunities that advance theory through
qualitative methods. In so doing, we believe that
the theoretical insights will contribute to our col-
lective understanding of tackling someof theworld’s
most intractable management and organizational
challenges (Eisenhardt, Graebner, and Sonenshein,
2016).

In this editorial, we describe different qualitative
methods as genres—distinct approaches with their
own internally coherent epistemology, historical
roots, and assumptions. Similar to different works of
literature, music, or film, a genre emphasizes vari-
ety across types of qualitative research, as well as

alignment of logics within each type. Examples of
qualitative genres include case study research, pro-
cess studies, engaged scholarship, historical studies,
discourse studies, paradox as a method, dialectical
inquiry, and fuzzy set qualitative comparative anal-
ysis. Just as the label of ‘qualitative research’ con-
tains within it a variety of genres, these genres often
contain within them gradations and subgenres,
which may form their own genre. Indeed, we antic-
ipate that the diversity of methodologies will only
expand in scope as the qualitative field continues to
mature, but only as long as we remain vigilant in
ensuring that the field does not institutionalize
around a few norms too quickly.

In this editorial, we first outline the broad cate-
gory of qualitative research and highlight its value
for new ways of seeing. We then expand upon some
exemplary genres of qualitative research, noting
their internally aligned assumptions as well as their
distinctions from other genres. We conclude this
editorial byhighlighting four core principles that can
help both authors and reviewers alike adopt and as-
sess the quality of research that aims to see in new
ways.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AS A MEANS
TO SEE IN NEW WAYS

By ‘qualitative research,’ we mean scholarship
that primarily relies on qualitative data and induc-
tive theorizing. Quantitative data are numerical, and
can be added, manipulated, and transformed into
efficient data displays. Qualitative data, on the other
hand, are nonreduceable text, including words and
visuals delivered in static (e.g., paper) or dynamic
form (e.g., theater). Although these qualitative data
can be digitized, synthesized, and even counted,
doing so first requires interpretation of the data to
discern patterns and insights. Given the broad forms
in which qualitative data may appear, a researcher’s
onto-epistemological assumptions often shape his/
her approaches to this analytical process.

Inductive theorizing is a cornerstone of qualitative
research.Whereas quantitativemethodsdeducenew
knowledge that relies heavily on logical reasoning
based on prior insights and expands understanding

All authors contributed equally and are listed in alpha-
betical order.

1189

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along existing or adjacent paths, qualitative research
surfaces new insights that can often introduce theory
in completely new directions. When adopting qual-
itative methods, scholars draw on the observations
from the data to introduce abstracted knowledge that
can generalize beyond the specific contexts. Induc-
tive theorizing grounded in data can broaden the
researchers’ epistemological framewith longer leaps
thanhypo-deductive logic basedonquantitative data,
thereby yielding completely novel ideas.

Such inductive theorizing based on qualitative data
are particularly appropriate in new or understudied
empirical contexts where there is relatively little prior
work, as in the case of complex, messy grand chal-
lenges (Nadkarniet al., 2018).AsBambergerandPratt’s
(2010) AMJ editorial advocated, unconventional con-
texts serve to break our assumed theoretical frames. By
starting with the phenomena, researchers can some-
times discern perspectives inaccessible through
hypothetico-deductive logic. By enabling lateral shifts
in knowledge that are often difficult to observe using
deductive methods, qualitative research advances
critical thinking and scholarship.

EXAMPLES OF MORE-ESTABLISHED AND
LESS-ESTABLISHED GENRES

Qualitative research includes many genres, each
offering a different lens with which to view phe-
nomena.Wedescribe several examples of qualitative
research, seeking to highlight the rich breadth of
insights through different qualitative genres drawn
from management research and from scholarly tra-
ditions developed in other fields of social sciences
and the humanities. The connection to these other
traditions helps researchers see the links to other
onto-epistemological assumptions, recognizing the
origins of the ideas and their related traditions. Our
examples are meant to be illustrative not compre-
hensive;we invite scholars to recognize anddeploy a
full range of genres that fits their research endeavor,
alignswith their data, and reflects their ownpersonal
research preferences.

Variance-Based Case Studies

Variance-based case studies build an understand-
ing of the relationships between well-defined con-
structs, so that the proposed relationships transcend
a specific context (Eisenhardt, 1989). These studies
often aim to unpack “what causes what,” as re-
searchers seek to understand the factors that can ex-
plain different outcomes.

Multiple case studies use a replication-and-
comparison logic to see patterns in a data set. Cases
with outcomes that vary (e.g. success and failure) are
useful in eliciting different explanatory variables;
multiple cases with the same outcomes (e.g. success
or failure) strengthen the reliability of the theory.
Even single case studies can be used to support
variance-based theorizing, comparing the current
data against insights from received theory. These
variance-based approaches tend to follow a positivist
paradigm, so that other researchers can assess the
validityof the theoryandconstructsby applying them
to different empirical settings.

More than any other qualitative method, this
positivist genre dovetails most closely with deduc-
tive, quantitative research. Whereas a hypothetico-
deductive approach to theorizing starts with prior
theory, an inductive approach starts with the data
or context-specific problem (Weick, 1992).However,
the propositions derived in this type of positivist
analysis can extend prior work and stimulate future
deductivework (Eisenhardt &Graebner, 2007), though
doing so in ways that offer potential leapfrogs in the-
orizing.Forexample,Plowman,Baker,Beck,Kulkarni,
Solansky, and Travis (2007) used a single case study
to observe how a series of small events—specifically,
offering hot breakfasts— ultimately contributed to
radical changes in a church. To understand this phe-
nomenon, the authors applied complexity theory to
theorize how such small triggers could result in such
radical changes. Complexity theory had previously
received little attention in mainstream management
journals. By applying this theory, the authors ex-
panded our field’s engagement with it.

Process Studies

Process studies explore change, emergence, ad-
aptation, and transformation. Whereas variance ap-
proachesprioritize static entities, unpack their stable
structures and constitutive features, and identify the
factors that lead to specific outcomes, process on-
tology shifts the focus to the ongoing, dynamic, and
shifting experiences. Early process studies consid-
ered how entities changed from one time period to
the next (Mintzberg, 1978; Pettigrew; 1990). Starting
in the late 1990s, however, scholars argued for
a ‘strong’ process approach that diminishes entities
altogether and explores phenomena as always
changing (for an overview, see Langley & Tsoukas,
2010, 2017). For example, Tushman andRomanelli’s
(1985) work on punctuated equilibrium represents
an early approach to process studies, highlighting

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the adaptive states of “variation and selection” that
stimulate organizational innovation and change
between more stable states of “retention.” In con-
trast, Weick and Quinn (1999) proffered a strong
process model, suggesting that change is not epi-
sodically occurring betweenmore static periods, but
continuous and ongoing, such that there are no static
periods.

Process studiesdraw fromrichphilosophical roots
(i.e., Dewey, 1938; James, 1952; Whitehead, 1978),
relying on a dynamic, relational, and antidualistic
ontology. This ontology describes a world that is in
constant flux, where individuals and environments
are mutually constitutive. The nature of these flow-
ing relationships take primacy, such that, in the ex-
treme, the dualistic distinctions we make between
the individual and the environment, the self and the
other, themind and the bodyabsolve to focus only on
their dynamic interactions.

Adopting a process view then invites us to observe
flows, changes, and relationality. For example,
a more variance-oriented study might identify rou-
tines and ask how particular routines lead tomore or
less impact on organizational outcomes. A strong
process view, in contrast, explores the underlying
motor of routines, and how routines themselves are
in constant flux and change informing as well as
informed by the users that adopt them (Feldman
& Pentland, 2003). Similarly, a more variance-
oriented study of hybridity might hold constant
competing logics, goals, and identities and explore
organizational factors that lead to increased or de-
creased conflict between these competing demands
(Battilana & Dorado, 2010; Pache & Santos, 2013).
A process-oriented view might explore the morph-
ing and changing of competing logics, goals, and
identities in relation to one another over time
(Ashforth & Reingen, 2014; Jay, 2013; Smith &
Besharov, 2017).

Engaged Scholarship

In most positivist research, we expect the people
conducting the research to distance themselves from
the ‘thing’ they are observing. Doing so protects
the researchers’ objectivity and ensures that their
biases do not influence scholarly outcomes. ‘En-
gaged scholarship’ challenges this assumption of
distance and objectivity. According to this genre,
qualitative researchers cannot be disentangled from
their context; the very presence of a researcher in the
context will ultimately influence the research con-
text such that ultimately the two may be mutually

constituted (Van de Ven, 2007). Instead, these
connections between the researcher and the
researched can be considered a strength for insights,
as the people being studied are often seen as collab-
orators in the research process.

Although scientific knowledge and practical
knowledge are different, they can inform each other
and the greater embeddedness of the researcher
in his or her context will favor deeper insights
and empathy for those that he or she is research-
ing. Engaged scholarship, then, offers new ways
of seeing, as the insights not only incorporate
the perspective of managers, but also benefit from
the creative abrasion of the two different types of
knowledge systems to givemeaning to the research
context. Further, one of the greatest strengths of
engaged scholarship is that it can help to mobilize
the insights in real time, which means that re-
searchers can sometimes even assess the efficacy
of their findings in real time (Rynes, Bartunek, &
Daft, 2001).

Relatively few research articles based on engaged
scholarship or action researchmake it into the pages
of AMJ, because authors have difficulty describing
their experience and describing their role. How-
ever, given that many qualitative researchers are
engaged scholars, it is important for researchers to
be forthright about their role. Jay’s (2013) article on
the transformation of the Cambridge Energy Alli-
ance from a client-oriented business to a public
service nonprofit offers a good exemplar of engaged
scholarship. During his two-year ethnography as an
organizational historian, he shared with his in-
formants his insights about the context, actions, and
outcomes, which he recognized likely shaped the
views of his informants.He countered the criticisms
for such close engagement by being transparent and
reflexive,while also keeping a ‘fourth notebook.’He
also recognizes that he gained deep, first-hand in-
sights into the conflicts that his informants experi-
enced in the change process, which gave him
an emic perspective of the organization’s transition
process.

Historical Studies

Although longitudinal case studies or process stud-
ies often analyze historical data, we are witnessing
a ‘historical turn’ in management and orga-
nization studies (Godfrey, Hassard, O’Connor,
Rowlinson, & Ruef, 2016; Kipping & Üsdiken,
2014; Rowlinson, Hassard, & Decker, 2014). This
turn is shifting attention from the simple use of

2018 Bansal, Smith, and Vaara 1191

historical data to the value of these analyses in
making us see the social, cultural, and institu-
tional construction of organizational and mana-
gerial phenomena in historical context. Whereas
hypothetico-deductive logic seeks universal laws
or mechanisms, historical analysis recognizes the
temporal and spatial historical embeddedness of
organizational phenomena. Such analysis requires
access to or ability to gather appropriate data, as
well as the key principles of historical analysis:
a preference for authentic archival data over ret-
rospective material, comprehensive source criti-
cism, and researchers’ reflexivity in constructing
the narrative.

Although few in number, we have increasingly
seen more historical papers published in leading
journals such as AMJ. For instance, Cattani, Dunbar,
andShapira (2013) provided anexemplaryhistorical
analysis of value creation and knowledge loss by
studying how value has been attributed to Cremon-
ese stringed instruments from the 16th to the 19th
centuries. Hampel and Tracey (2017) offered an il-
luminating institutional analysis of how Thomas
Cook’s travel agency moved from stigmatization to
legitimacy among the elite of Victorian Britain. Such
studies successfully highlight historically embed-
ded processes and practices and their changes over
time.

There are, however, many ways of conducting
historical work, and these can be understood as
subgenres. For instance, Vaara and Lamberg (2016)
distinguished between realist, interpretative, and
poststructuralist approaches to using historical
methods and conducting historically oriented strat-
egy research. Each of these approaches can elucidate
particular aspects of historical phenomena, but they
also imply very different kinds of perspectives on
empiricalmaterial,methods of analysis, and theways
in which research findings are articulated in papers.
For instance, as in the studies mentioned above,
realist historical analysis can uncover the process
dynamics and help to elucidate the historically em-
bedded agency of decision-makers or managers, im-
plying a need to focus on as accurate a reconstruction
of historical events and trajectories as possible. More
interpretative studies, such as microhistorical ana-
lyses, can instead illuminate the roleof specific events
and practices and how they exemplify typical char-
acteristics of a particular time period from the per-
spective of the key actors involved. Poststructuralist
historical studies can in turn problematize typically
held historical interpretations, requiring a special
emphasis on reflexivity and criticality.

Discourse Studies

There are many discursive approaches to analyz-
ing organizational data, such as content analysis,
conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis,
Foucauldian discourse analysis, and narrative stud-
ies (Phillips & Oswick, 2012; Vaara, Sonenshein, &
Boje, 2016). Although it is somewhat problematic to
lump these approaches together, they share some
common elements that can be described under one
heading. Specifically, this genre assumes a socially
constructed or poststructuralist understanding of
social reality that seeks to uncover and deconstruct
meanings, rather than seek to discover causal con-
nections (Fairclough, 2003; Foucault, 1977). Thus,
this genre offers a unique way of seeing the con-
struction of organizational and managerial phe-
nomena through discursive practices. By so doing,
discourse analysis not only emphasizes the role of
languageor communicationper se, it also offersways
to problematize commonly held conceptions and to
conduct critical research. This approach, however,
requires an ability to combine detailed linguistic
analysis with critical analysis of specific organiza-
tional phenomena.

An early example of discourse studies is Boje’s
(1995) poststructuralist narrative analysis of Disney,
which focused on the stories used to construct the
history of the company. This analysis revealed the
alternative stories and marginalized voices in this
historical construction. More recently, Maguire and
Hardy (2013) have studied the discursive processes
and practices through which products “become”
seen as risky, considering the implications for iden-
tity andpower. Such studies have elucidated the role
of discourse and discursive practices and also paved
the way for other types of analysis, such as conver-
sation analysis or themoredetailed critical discourse
analysis.

PUBLISHING ACROSS QUALITATIVE GENRES

While qualitative research uses data and analyses
that can flex to fit the researchers’ preferences,
scholars must still ensure rigor and fit. We offer four
core principles to help scholars more effectively
write, review, and read qualitative papers across the
broad range of qualitative genres.

Principle #1: Know Your Epistemology

Specific genres reflect particular onto-epistemological
assumptions that should be taken seriously through
the research process and writing the paper. The

1192 AugustAcademy of Management Journal

majority of papers submitted to and published in
journals such as AMJ tend to subscribe to the para-
digm of normal science that aims to find relation-
ships among valid constructs that can be replicated
by anyone. In such cases, researchers may not need
to explicitly elaborate on onto-epistemological is-
sues, which is the case with variance-based case
studies. However, genres that deviate from normal
science require researchers to often explicitly state
their onto-epistemological assumptions. For in-
stance, process studies need to state their relational
and temporal ontology in order to discriminate them-
selves from more variance-based approaches to
change. Similarly, poststructuralist forms of dis-
course studies must make their epistemological as-
sumptions explicit to differentiate them from other
types of studies and to help others see the value in
this kind of critical work.

Principle #2: Ensure that the Research Questions,
Data, and Analysis are Internally Consistent

Effective scholarship requires alignment between
one’s research questions, data, and analysis.Whereas
quantitative scholars often make decisions at the
start of a project to ensure that the data collection
and analysis fit with the research question, qualita-
tive, inductive approaches often require rethinking
these questions throughout the project. Insights
emerging while collecting data often reveal new
ideas that might inspire new data collection, alter-
native analytical processes, and even a modified re-
search question. While this process enables more
flexibility, the final scholarship still requires align-
ment across the research question, data collected,
and analytical processes—as well as alignment be-
tween these design choices and the overall genre’s
epistemology. Therefore, scholars must be open and
transparent about their assumptions and maintain
internal consistency throughout the paper. More-
over, scholars engaged in inductive inquiry must
often be familiar with a variety of genres to be able
to deliberately and purposely make choices that
align the research question, data, and analytical
methods in the final manuscript. Although we
appreciate and encourage scholars to boldly dis-
cover and follow new theories and methods, this
should be done in a careful manner that is mindful
about the differences between various genres and
subgenres. For instance, when engaging in dis-
course analysis, the tradition of conversation anal-
ysis is very different from Foucauldian discourse
analysis.

Principle #3: Be Authentic, Detailed, and Clear in
Argumentation and Style of Writing

The writing up of qualitative papers should be
detailed and authentic in terms of the genre fol-
lowed. In particular, the methods sections should
be as complete as possible, and researchers must
be able to defend the decisions they make to their
specific context. For example, almost all re-
searchers impact their organizational context, es-
pecially when they are deeply embedded in their
research context, as in the case of ethnographic re-
search. We encourage researchers to not only ex-
plicitly report their impact on their context, but also
to be reflexive in their data collection, so they rec-
ognize the role they play in shaping the organiza-
tional outcomes or their own implicit biases in
interpreting the result(s). Similarly, we advise re-
searchers to be authentic in the way they write up
their findings sections and conclusions. This is not,
however, always easy, as there is a need to apply
and adjust the original ideas in new contexts. Thus,
for instance, historical analysis can rarely be re-
ported in as detailed a way as historians ideally
would want to have it because that would require
more space than we usually have and leave less
room for theoretical contributions than is needed in
our own field. Similarly, discourse analysis should
focus attention on the linguistic micro processes
and practices, but this should not eat up all the
space needed to make specific points about the role
discourse in the managerial or organizational phe-
nomena one is studying.

Principle #4: Use Exemplary Papers, but Do Not
Force Fit Your Scholarshipwith Existing Templates

We applaud the increasing scholarship advancing
clear prescriptions and developing exemplary pa-
pers, which collectively advance methodological
rigor and ensure the value of our insights. We en-
courage scholars using new genres to continue to
find exemplars and templates to help ensure such
rigor. However, given that most genres are context
specific, following prior work too closely can result
in force fitting analysis that does not cohere with
one’s own approach. Authors must see their work as
unique and seek to continue to innovate and develop
the qualitative methods to avoid orthodoxies. We
also maintain that juxtaposing methodological ap-
proaches against one another can help inspire in-
novation within and across genres (see Gehman,
Glaser, Eisenhardt, Gioia, Langley, & Corley, 2018).

2018 Bansal, Smith, and Vaara 1193

Adopting qualitative, inductive methods allows
scholars to surface new insights and enable new
ways of seeing. The types of qualitative methods are
rich and varied. By focusing on a narrow set of
qualitative methods, we limit the types of insight we
surface as qualitative scholars. Our hope is to inspire
more scholarship that adopts these broader genres
and extends newways of seeing in management and
organizational research.

Pratima (Tima) Bansal
Ivey Business School, Western University

Wendy K. Smith
University of Delaware

Eero Vaara
Aalto University School of Business

EMLYON Business School
Lancaster University

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and development.Annual Review of Psychology, 50:
361–386.

Whitehead, A. N. 1978. Process and reality: An essay in
cosmology. New York, NY: Free Press.

2018 Bansal, Smith, and Vaara 1195

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email articles for individual use.

r Academy of Management Journal
2018, Vol. 61, No. 4, 1189–1195.
https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2018.4004

FROM THE EDITORS

NEW WAYS OF SEEING THROUGH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research offers critical tools that ad-
vance our editorial team’s ambition to foster ‘new
ways of seeing’ (see Shaw, Bansal, & Gruber, 2017).
By building theory inductively, research based on
qualitative data offers insights that challenge taken-
for-granted theories and expose new theoretical di-
rections. As we face more wicked problems in our
world, scholars are increasingly adopting qualitative
methods to unpack these complex challenges. In the
last year, qualitative papers hit an all-time high of
20% of submissions to Academy of Management
Journal (AMJ).

Yet, effectively unpacking new theory requires
scholars to take advantage of the breadth and variety
of approaches to qualitative research. In2011, Bansal
and Corley lamented that qualitative research was
norming around a single approach—often, case-
based positivist research with systematically coded
data—and called for more methodological diversity.
As editors, we are now seeing more papers sub-
mitted with varied qualitative methods, but these
more novel approaches remain in the minority nev-
ertheless. In this editorial, we underscore Bansal
and Corley’s (2011) argument that such diversity in
qualitative research is critical to advancing our cur-
rent AMJ editorial team’s desire to foster “new ways
of seeing.” By exposing the breadth of approaches
covered by the single label of “qualitative research,”
we hope to motivate researchers to more fully em-
brace opportunities that advance theory through
qualitative methods. In so doing, we believe that
the theoretical insights will contribute to our col-
lective understanding of tackling someof theworld’s
most intractable management and organizational
challenges (Eisenhardt, Graebner, and Sonenshein,
2016).

In this editorial, we describe different qualitative
methods as genres—distinct approaches with their
own internally coherent epistemology, historical
roots, and assumptions. Similar to different works of
literature, music, or film, a genre emphasizes vari-
ety across types of qualitative research, as well as

alignment of logics within each type. Examples of
qualitative genres include case study research, pro-
cess studies, engaged scholarship, historical studies,
discourse studies, paradox as a method, dialectical
inquiry, and fuzzy set qualitative comparative anal-
ysis. Just as the label of ‘qualitative research’ con-
tains within it a variety of genres, these genres often
contain within them gradations and subgenres,
which may form their own genre. Indeed, we antic-
ipate that the diversity of methodologies will only
expand in scope as the qualitative field continues to
mature, but only as long as we remain vigilant in
ensuring that the field does not institutionalize
around a few norms too quickly.

In this editorial, we first outline the broad cate-
gory of qualitative research and highlight its value
for new ways of seeing. We then expand upon some
exemplary genres of qualitative research, noting
their internally aligned assumptions as well as their
distinctions from other genres. We conclude this
editorial byhighlighting four core principles that can
help both authors and reviewers alike adopt and as-
sess the quality of research that aims to see in new
ways.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AS A MEANS
TO SEE IN NEW WAYS

By ‘qualitative research,’ we mean scholarship
that primarily relies on qualitative data and induc-
tive theorizing. Quantitative data are numerical, and
can be added, manipulated, and transformed into
efficient data displays. Qualitative data, on the other
hand, are nonreduceable text, including words and
visuals delivered in static (e.g., paper) or dynamic
form (e.g., theater). Although these qualitative data
can be digitized, synthesized, and even counted,
doing so first requires interpretation of the data to
discern patterns and insights. Given the broad forms
in which qualitative data may appear, a researcher’s
onto-epistemological assumptions often shape his/
her approaches to this analytical process.

Inductive theorizing is a cornerstone of qualitative
research.Whereas quantitativemethodsdeducenew
knowledge that relies heavily on logical reasoning
based on prior insights and expands understanding

All authors contributed equally and are listed in alpha-
betical order.

1189

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written permission. Users may print, download, or email articles for individual use only.

along existing or adjacent paths, qualitative research
surfaces new insights that can often introduce theory
in completely new directions. When adopting qual-
itative methods, scholars draw on the observations
from the data to introduce abstracted knowledge that
can generalize beyond the specific contexts. Induc-
tive theorizing grounded in data can broaden the
researchers’ epistemological framewith longer leaps
thanhypo-deductive logic basedonquantitative data,
thereby yielding completely novel ideas.

Such inductive theorizing based on qualitative data
are particularly appropriate in new or understudied
empirical contexts where there is relatively little prior
work, as in the case of complex, messy grand chal-
lenges (Nadkarniet al., 2018).AsBambergerandPratt’s
(2010) AMJ editorial advocated, unconventional con-
texts serve to break our assumed theoretical frames. By
starting with the phenomena, researchers can some-
times discern perspectives inaccessible through
hypothetico-deductive logic. By enabling lateral shifts
in knowledge that are often difficult to observe using
deductive methods, qualitative research advances
critical thinking and scholarship.

EXAMPLES OF MORE-ESTABLISHED AND
LESS-ESTABLISHED GENRES

Qualitative research includes many genres, each
offering a different lens with which to view phe-
nomena.Wedescribe several examples of qualitative
research, seeking to highlight the rich breadth of
insights through different qualitative genres drawn
from management research and from scholarly tra-
ditions developed in other fields of social sciences
and the humanities. The connection to these other
traditions helps researchers see the links to other
onto-epistemological assumptions, recognizing the
origins of the ideas and their related traditions. Our
examples are meant to be illustrative not compre-
hensive;we invite scholars to recognize anddeploy a
full range of genres that fits their research endeavor,
alignswith their data, and reflects their ownpersonal
research preferences.

Variance-Based Case Studies

Variance-based case studies build an understand-
ing of the relationships between well-defined con-
structs, so that the proposed relationships transcend
a specific context (Eisenhardt, 1989). These studies
often aim to unpack “what causes what,” as re-
searchers seek to understand the factors that can ex-
plain different outcomes.

Multiple case studies use a replication-and-
comparison logic to see patterns in a data set. Cases
with outcomes that vary (e.g. success and failure) are
useful in eliciting different explanatory variables;
multiple cases with the same outcomes (e.g. success
or failure) strengthen the reliability of the theory.
Even single case studies can be used to support
variance-based theorizing, comparing the current
data against insights from received theory. These
variance-based approaches tend to follow a positivist
paradigm, so that other researchers can assess the
validityof the theoryandconstructsby applying them
to different empirical settings.

More than any other qualitative method, this
positivist genre dovetails most closely with deduc-
tive, quantitative research. Whereas a hypothetico-
deductive approach to theorizing starts with prior
theory, an inductive approach starts with the data
or context-specific problem (Weick, 1992).However,
the propositions derived in this type of positivist
analysis can extend prior work and stimulate future
deductivework (Eisenhardt &Graebner, 2007), though
doing so in ways that offer potential leapfrogs in the-
orizing.Forexample,Plowman,Baker,Beck,Kulkarni,
Solansky, and Travis (2007) used a single case study
to observe how a series of small events—specifically,
offering hot breakfasts— ultimately contributed to
radical changes in a church. To understand this phe-
nomenon, the authors applied complexity theory to
theorize how such small triggers could result in such
radical changes. Complexity theory had previously
received little attention in mainstream management
journals. By applying this theory, the authors ex-
panded our field’s engagement with it.

Process Studies

Process studies explore change, emergence, ad-
aptation, and transformation. Whereas variance ap-
proachesprioritize static entities, unpack their stable
structures and constitutive features, and identify the
factors that lead to specific outcomes, process on-
tology shifts the focus to the ongoing, dynamic, and
shifting experiences. Early process studies consid-
ered how entities changed from one time period to
the next (Mintzberg, 1978; Pettigrew; 1990). Starting
in the late 1990s, however, scholars argued for
a ‘strong’ process approach that diminishes entities
altogether and explores phenomena as always
changing (for an overview, see Langley & Tsoukas,
2010, 2017). For example, Tushman andRomanelli’s
(1985) work on punctuated equilibrium represents
an early approach to process studies, highlighting

1190 AugustAcademy of Management Journal

the adaptive states of “variation and selection” that
stimulate organizational innovation and change
between more stable states of “retention.” In con-
trast, Weick and Quinn (1999) proffered a strong
process model, suggesting that change is not epi-
sodically occurring betweenmore static periods, but
continuous and ongoing, such that there are no static
periods.

Process studiesdraw fromrichphilosophical roots
(i.e., Dewey, 1938; James, 1952; Whitehead, 1978),
relying on a dynamic, relational, and antidualistic
ontology. This ontology describes a world that is in
constant flux, where individuals and environments
are mutually constitutive. The nature of these flow-
ing relationships take primacy, such that, in the ex-
treme, the dualistic distinctions we make between
the individual and the environment, the self and the
other, themind and the bodyabsolve to focus only on
their dynamic interactions.

Adopting a process view then invites us to observe
flows, changes, and relationality. For example,
a more variance-oriented study might identify rou-
tines and ask how particular routines lead tomore or
less impact on organizational outcomes. A strong
process view, in contrast, explores the underlying
motor of routines, and how routines themselves are
in constant flux and change informing as well as
informed by the users that adopt them (Feldman
& Pentland, 2003). Similarly, a more variance-
oriented study of hybridity might hold constant
competing logics, goals, and identities and explore
organizational factors that lead to increased or de-
creased conflict between these competing demands
(Battilana & Dorado, 2010; Pache & Santos, 2013).
A process-oriented view might explore the morph-
ing and changing of competing logics, goals, and
identities in relation to one another over time
(Ashforth & Reingen, 2014; Jay, 2013; Smith &
Besharov, 2017).

Engaged Scholarship

In most positivist research, we expect the people
conducting the research to distance themselves from
the ‘thing’ they are observing. Doing so protects
the researchers’ objectivity and ensures that their
biases do not influence scholarly outcomes. ‘En-
gaged scholarship’ challenges this assumption of
distance and objectivity. According to this genre,
qualitative researchers cannot be disentangled from
their context; the very presence of a researcher in the
context will ultimately influence the research con-
text such that ultimately the two may be mutually

constituted (Van de Ven, 2007). Instead, these
connections between the researcher and the
researched can be considered a strength for insights,
as the people being studied are often seen as collab-
orators in the research process.

Although scientific knowledge and practical
knowledge are different, they can inform each other
and the greater embeddedness of the researcher
in his or her context will favor deeper insights
and empathy for those that he or she is research-
ing. Engaged scholarship, then, offers new ways
of seeing, as the insights not only incorporate
the perspective of managers, but also benefit from
the creative abrasion of the two different types of
knowledge systems to givemeaning to the research
context. Further, one of the greatest strengths of
engaged scholarship is that it can help to mobilize
the insights in real time, which means that re-
searchers can sometimes even assess the efficacy
of their findings in real time (Rynes, Bartunek, &
Daft, 2001).

Relatively few research articles based on engaged
scholarship or action researchmake it into the pages
of AMJ, because authors have difficulty describing
their experience and describing their role. How-
ever, given that many qualitative researchers are
engaged scholars, it is important for researchers to
be forthright about their role. Jay’s (2013) article on
the transformation of the Cambridge Energy Alli-
ance from a client-oriented business to a public
service nonprofit offers a good exemplar of engaged
scholarship. During his two-year ethnography as an
organizational historian, he shared with his in-
formants his insights about the context, actions, and
outcomes, which he recognized likely shaped the
views of his informants.He countered the criticisms
for such close engagement by being transparent and
reflexive,while also keeping a ‘fourth notebook.’He
also recognizes that he gained deep, first-hand in-
sights into the conflicts that his informants experi-
enced in the change process, which gave him
an emic perspective of the organization’s transition
process.

Historical Studies

Although longitudinal case studies or process stud-
ies often analyze historical data, we are witnessing
a ‘historical turn’ in management and orga-
nization studies (Godfrey, Hassard, O’Connor,
Rowlinson, & Ruef, 2016; Kipping & Üsdiken,
2014; Rowlinson, Hassard, & Decker, 2014). This
turn is shifting attention from the simple use of

2018 Bansal, Smith, and Vaara 1191

historical data to the value of these analyses in
making us see the social, cultural, and institu-
tional construction of organizational and mana-
gerial phenomena in historical context. Whereas
hypothetico-deductive logic seeks universal laws
or mechanisms, historical analysis recognizes the
temporal and spatial historical embeddedness of
organizational phenomena. Such analysis requires
access to or ability to gather appropriate data, as
well as the key principles of historical analysis:
a preference for authentic archival data over ret-
rospective material, comprehensive source criti-
cism, and researchers’ reflexivity in constructing
the narrative.

Although few in number, we have increasingly
seen more historical papers published in leading
journals such as AMJ. For instance, Cattani, Dunbar,
andShapira (2013) provided anexemplaryhistorical
analysis of value creation and knowledge loss by
studying how value has been attributed to Cremon-
ese stringed instruments from the 16th to the 19th
centuries. Hampel and Tracey (2017) offered an il-
luminating institutional analysis of how Thomas
Cook’s travel agency moved from stigmatization to
legitimacy among the elite of Victorian Britain. Such
studies successfully highlight historically embed-
ded processes and practices and their changes over
time.

There are, however, many ways of conducting
historical work, and these can be understood as
subgenres. For instance, Vaara and Lamberg (2016)
distinguished between realist, interpretative, and
poststructuralist approaches to using historical
methods and conducting historically oriented strat-
egy research. Each of these approaches can elucidate
particular aspects of historical phenomena, but they
also imply very different kinds of perspectives on
empiricalmaterial,methods of analysis, and theways
in which research findings are articulated in papers.
For instance, as in the studies mentioned above,
realist historical analysis can uncover the process
dynamics and help to elucidate the historically em-
bedded agency of decision-makers or managers, im-
plying a need to focus on as accurate a reconstruction
of historical events and trajectories as possible. More
interpretative studies, such as microhistorical ana-
lyses, can instead illuminate the roleof specific events
and practices and how they exemplify typical char-
acteristics of a particular time period from the per-
spective of the key actors involved. Poststructuralist
historical studies can in turn problematize typically
held historical interpretations, requiring a special
emphasis on reflexivity and criticality.

Discourse Studies

There are many discursive approaches to analyz-
ing organizational data, such as content analysis,
conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis,
Foucauldian discourse analysis, and narrative stud-
ies (Phillips & Oswick, 2012; Vaara, Sonenshein, &
Boje, 2016). Although it is somewhat problematic to
lump these approaches together, they share some
common elements that can be described under one
heading. Specifically, this genre assumes a socially
constructed or poststructuralist understanding of
social reality that seeks to uncover and deconstruct
meanings, rather than seek to discover causal con-
nections (Fairclough, 2003; Foucault, 1977). Thus,
this genre offers a unique way of seeing the con-
struction of organizational and managerial phe-
nomena through discursive practices. By so doing,
discourse analysis not only emphasizes the role of
languageor communicationper se, it also offersways
to problematize commonly held conceptions and to
conduct critical research. This approach, however,
requires an ability to combine detailed linguistic
analysis with critical analysis of specific organiza-
tional phenomena.

An early example of discourse studies is Boje’s
(1995) poststructuralist narrative analysis of Disney,
which focused on the stories used to construct the
history of the company. This analysis revealed the
alternative stories and marginalized voices in this
historical construction. More recently, Maguire and
Hardy (2013) have studied the discursive processes
and practices through which products “become”
seen as risky, considering the implications for iden-
tity andpower. Such studies have elucidated the role
of discourse and discursive practices and also paved
the way for other types of analysis, such as conver-
sation analysis or themoredetailed critical discourse
analysis.

PUBLISHING ACROSS QUALITATIVE GENRES

While qualitative research uses data and analyses
that can flex to fit the researchers’ preferences,
scholars must still ensure rigor and fit. We offer four
core principles to help scholars more effectively
write, review, and read qualitative papers across the
broad range of qualitative genres.

Principle #1: Know Your Epistemology

Specific genres reflect particular onto-epistemological
assumptions that should be taken seriously through
the research process and writing the paper. The

1192 AugustAcademy of Management Journal

majority of papers submitted to and published in
journals such as AMJ tend to subscribe to the para-
digm of normal science that aims to find relation-
ships among valid constructs that can be replicated
by anyone. In such cases, researchers may not need
to explicitly elaborate on onto-epistemological is-
sues, which is the case with variance-based case
studies. However, genres that deviate from normal
science require researchers to often explicitly state
their onto-epistemological assumptions. For in-
stance, process studies need to state their relational
and temporal ontology in order to discriminate them-
selves from more variance-based approaches to
change. Similarly, poststructuralist forms of dis-
course studies must make their epistemological as-
sumptions explicit to differentiate them from other
types of studies and to help others see the value in
this kind of critical work.

Principle #2: Ensure that the Research Questions,
Data, and Analysis are Internally Consistent

Effective scholarship requires alignment between
one’s research questions, data, and analysis.Whereas
quantitative scholars often make decisions at the
start of a project to ensure that the data collection
and analysis fit with the research question, qualita-
tive, inductive approaches often require rethinking
these questions throughout the project. Insights
emerging while collecting data often reveal new
ideas that might inspire new data collection, alter-
native analytical processes, and even a modified re-
search question. While this process enables more
flexibility, the final scholarship still requires align-
ment across the research question, data collected,
and analytical processes—as well as alignment be-
tween these design choices and the overall genre’s
epistemology. Therefore, scholars must be open and
transparent about their assumptions and maintain
internal consistency throughout the paper. More-
over, scholars engaged in inductive inquiry must
often be familiar with a variety of genres to be able
to deliberately and purposely make choices that
align the research question, data, and analytical
methods in the final manuscript. Although we
appreciate and encourage scholars to boldly dis-
cover and follow new theories and methods, this
should be done in a careful manner that is mindful
about the differences between various genres and
subgenres. For instance, when engaging in dis-
course analysis, the tradition of conversation anal-
ysis is very different from Foucauldian discourse
analysis.

Principle #3: Be Authentic, Detailed, and Clear in
Argumentation and Style of Writing

The writing up of qualitative papers should be
detailed and authentic in terms of the genre fol-
lowed. In particular, the methods sections should
be as complete as possible, and researchers must
be able to defend the decisions they make to their
specific context. For example, almost all re-
searchers impact their organizational context, es-
pecially when they are deeply embedded in their
research context, as in the case of ethnographic re-
search. We encourage researchers to not only ex-
plicitly report their impact on their context, but also
to be reflexive in their data collection, so they rec-
ognize the role they play in shaping the organiza-
tional outcomes or their own implicit biases in
interpreting the result(s). Similarly, we advise re-
searchers to be authentic in the way they write up
their findings sections and conclusions. This is not,
however, always easy, as there is a need to apply
and adjust the original ideas in new contexts. Thus,
for instance, historical analysis can rarely be re-
ported in as detailed a way as historians ideally
would want to have it because that would require
more space than we usually have and leave less
room for theoretical contributions than is needed in
our own field. Similarly, discourse analysis should
focus attention on the linguistic micro processes
and practices, but this should not eat up all the
space needed to make specific points about the role
discourse in the managerial or organizational phe-
nomena one is studying.

Principle #4: Use Exemplary Papers, but Do Not
Force Fit Your Scholarshipwith Existing Templates

We applaud the increasing scholarship advancing
clear prescriptions and developing exemplary pa-
pers, which collectively advance methodological
rigor and ensure the value of our insights. We en-
courage scholars using new genres to continue to
find exemplars and templates to help ensure such
rigor. However, given that most genres are context
specific, following prior work too closely can result
in force fitting analysis that does not cohere with
one’s own approach. Authors must see their work as
unique and seek to continue to innovate and develop
the qualitative methods to avoid orthodoxies. We
also maintain that juxtaposing methodological ap-
proaches against one another can help inspire in-
novation within and across genres (see Gehman,
Glaser, Eisenhardt, Gioia, Langley, & Corley, 2018).

2018 Bansal, Smith, and Vaara 1193

Adopting qualitative, inductive methods allows
scholars to surface new insights and enable new
ways of seeing. The types of qualitative methods are
rich and varied. By focusing on a narrow set of
qualitative methods, we limit the types of insight we
surface as qualitative scholars. Our hope is to inspire
more scholarship that adopts these broader genres
and extends newways of seeing in management and
organizational research.

Pratima (Tima) Bansal
Ivey Business School, Western University

Wendy K. Smith
University of Delaware

Eero Vaara
Aalto University School of Business

EMLYON Business School
Lancaster University

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approaches and directions for future research. The
Academy of Management Annals, 10: 495–560.

Van deVen,A.H. 2007.Engaged scholarship: A guide for
organizational and social research. Oxford, En-
gland: Oxford University Press.

Weick, K. E. 1992. Agenda setting in organizational be-
havior: A theory-focused approach. Journal of Man-
agement Inquiry, 1: 171–182.

Weick, K. E., & Quinn, R. E. 1999. Organizational change
and development.Annual Review of Psychology, 50:
361–386.

Whitehead, A. N. 1978. Process and reality: An essay in
cosmology. New York, NY: Free Press.

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SAGE Research Methods

The Essentials of Qualitative Business Research

Pub. Date: 2017

Product: SAGE Research Methods

DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781526419552

Methods: Qualitative data collection, Qualitative data analysis, Qualitative measures

Keywords: business and management, craft work, judgment (psychology)

Disciplines: Business and Management, Economics

Access Date: January 4, 2023

Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Ltd.

City: London

Online ISBN: 9781526419552

© 2017 SAGE Publications, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

[MUSIC PLAYING] [The Essentials of Qualitative Business Research]

DR. EMMA BELL: I’m Emma Bell, and I’m a Professor of Management and Organization Studies at

Keele University. [Dr. Emma Bell, Professor of Management and Organization Studis].

DR. HUGH WILMOTT: And I’m Hugh Wilmott, and I’m a Professor of Management at Cass Business

School and also at Cardiff Business School. We’re going to be talking about qualitative business re-

search, and we’re going to start with a quote from C. Wright Mills, who refers to intellectual crafts-

manship.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: We perhaps prefer to call that intellectual craft person ship. The

quote really indicates the kind of area that we want to talk about today. The key point is that we want

to suggest that qualitative research is not about religiously following procedures,

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: but it’s a much more creative process, a process where craft is

the appropriate metaphor, where we try to craft our activity to be creative, to recognize that there’s a

room for rules and procedures, but also scope to be much more creative in understanding

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: the social world. So it’s this craft practice that we want to explore

and emphasize today. So in this tutorial, we want to cover three areas. We want to start by identifying

some of the characteristics of qualitative business research. Then we want to explore a little bit on

how qualitative business

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: research is crafted. And then we want finally to look at some of

these threats and opportunities for qualitative business research. [What is Qualitative Business Re-

search?] The first point to be made is that business, and management, and so on, is one sphere of

what

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: we do which can be researched. There are other spheres like re-

ligion, or family, science, and so on. But our focus here is the area of business and management,

broadly defined. And we would say that this sphere comprises a lot of practices, social practices,

what people do on a day to day basis.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: And so the methods of social science are equally applicable for

studying this sphere. So we have psychologists. We have sociologists, and anthropologists, econo-

mists, and so on, examining the sphere. [What is Qualitative Research?]

DR. EMMA BELL: So we’ve talked about qualitative business research, but I want to explore in a

little more detail now what we mean by qualitative research. And we need to start by using the word,

“interpretation.” Interpretation is crucial to what qualitative researches do. That involves the interpre-

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tation of words.

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: That include various forms of textual data, interview data, written

words. And so often, the distinction that is made between quantitative research and qualitative re-

search is that the former is about numbers, and the latter is focusing on words.

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: But that really is to oversimplify things. In some ways, the matter of

interpretation is something that’s common to both quantitative and qualitative research. And so we

might say that because of that, both kinds of research are “crafty.” They involve some aspect of turn-

ing text or interpreting it

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: in a way that changes its meaning or overlays meaning. And so qual-

itative research involves a continuous exercise of judgment, a continuous process of imaginatively

working with data in ways that transform it.

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: [How is Qualitative Business Research Crafted?]

DR. HUGH WILMOTT: So we’ll start by looking at three quotes that in different ways, illuminates

what we mean by craft in qualitative business research. So take a look at the first quote. [“Research

is a craft. The learning of craft skills may take years of trial and error. Through practice one learns

to ask research questions, how to conduct research projects, and what to strive for when writing a

research paper. Significant research then, is a way of thinking that can be called craftsmanship.”]

Caft, R. (1983). Learning the craft of organizational research, Academy of Management Review, 8,

539-546. It recognizes that the development of these skills occurs over time.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: They can’t be rushed. It’s a matter of continuous practice and re-

finement, a process of trial and error, of learning as much from the difficulties of undertaking research

as from the successes, and developing really a way of thinking, the kind that Emma was discussing

just now,

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: where imagination, the capacity to think in more broad ways to

make connections, and so on, becomes very, very important. [Craftwork involves the disciplined cre-

ativity that results in a tangible and well made product–in this case, the piece of research. Knowl-

edge of methods and theoreticcal paradigns alone is therefore insufficient for engaging in the craft of

research. Of much more value is the noton of an intellectual tradition.”] Prasad, P. (2005). Crafting

qualitative research; Working in the post-positivist traditions. Armonk, NY; M.E. Sharpe. But as the

second quote points out, it is a disciplined process, and that discipline comes through processes of

self-reflection,

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: but also through engaging with other researchers, getting feed-

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back from other researchers, and developing, as any craftsperson would, the capacity to undertake

research, working within specific intellectual traditions. So these traditions develop over time,

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: and people develop apprenticeships within those traditions.

“Craftwork is construed as the more exploratory expressions of embedded and aesthetic forms of

knowledge. Craft is a starting place, a set of possibilities. It avoids absolutes, certainties, over robust

definitions, solace. It offers places, interstices, where objects and people meet. It is unstable, contin-

gent. It is about experience. It is about desire. It can be beautiful. (de Waal)” Cunlife, A.L. (2011).

Crafting qualitative research; Morgan and Smircich 30 years on. Organizational Research Methods,

14, 647-673. The final quote, again, tries to highlight some of the important features of craft work.

So, for example, it is skeptical about certainties.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: It’s skeptical about absolutes. In other words, it is constantly ques-

tioning existing forms of authority. It looks for gaps that exist, in terms of how we think, rather than

following rigid pathways.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: And therefore, there is a degree of instability about it. There’s a

degree of contingency about it, and there’s a kind of aesthetics about the process. I suppose it’s like

when you see something that is being produced by a crafts person, and you can sense that there is

an aesthetic quality

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: to that piece of work.

DR. EMMA BELL: So we need to understand research craft work as a socially embedded practice, or

something that relies on skills, on being regularly practiced, as an activity that’s learned within com-

munities, that’s learned by doing research, that’s

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: learned by enacting certain practices within groups. And so from that,

we get a sense of the nature of craft as an activity that is intuitive, that is tacit, rather than explicit,

and therefore,

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: cannot be acquired through the following of set rules and procedures.

And the image that you see on the slide now is of a craft worker, of somebody working with clay, and

forming it into a pot. And we see this as a very useful metaphor,

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: in terms of communicating what the essential characteristics of re-

search craft entail, because it highlights the intimate relationship between the craft worker and the

object with which they engage. They work with their hands to form something,

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: and it’s a creative process of engagement. And the quote that you see

here relates to the nature of that learning process, the way in which it is a form of apprenticeship.

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Very often, and I think Hugh and I could probably exchange stories of how we learnt our research

craft,

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: but we learnt it through watching others, through doing research in

groups, and talking about research with other researchers. And it’s that kind of process of learning

that we believe is essential in qualitative business research. In this next image, you see a patchwork

quilt,

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: which is another useful metaphor for thinking about the nature of qual-

itative business research as craft, as an activity involving piecing together, working in what is some-

times referred to as bricolage, a process of taking existing materials, and forming them into some-

thing new.

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: And this image also draws attention to something about the process

of analyzing qualitative data as an activity which involves forming patterns, patterns in the data that

then become something meaningful, something which is recognizable. [Key points -Qualitative re-

search is a creative process

DR. EMMA BELL [continued]: that can be likened to a craft. -Like a craft, it is mastered by learning

while doing. -It requires a deep commitment to exploration, involving imagination and creativity. -If

done well, it results in a well made research product that has credibility, new insights, contributes to

the tradition and is illuminating to the participants.]

DR. HUGH WILMOTT: So drawing this section of our tutorial to a close, we’ve tried to summarize

some of the key points. And we begin with this quote from Adamson, whose book is called, Thinking

Through Craft. And he stresses how for him, at least, and for us, craft is very much a process.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: It’s an approach. It’s an attitude, a habit of action. It’s something

that develops over time through practice, through adversity, through learning from others, through

trying out things, finding out what works, and what doesn’t.

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: As he says, it’s not about a classification of objects, or people, or

institutions. So we’ve tried to identify how craft is experienced, and also, how craft is characterized.

And we’ve stressed that it involves

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: a deep commitment, a personal commitment to exploration in-

volving imagination, involving creativity. That involves, in itself, considerable effort, physical effort, as

well as mental effort. You need to have the stamina to maintain a research

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: program to keep going, not to get disappointed, not to get deflect-

ed, and so on. And the idea, in the end, is to come out with a well-made product. What does that

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mean? It means something that has credibility, something that

DR. HUGH WILMOTT [continued]: offers new insights, and of course, something ultimately that con-

tributes to whatever intellectual tradition that you happen to be working in and one hopes also is

illuminating for the people who you happen to be researching.

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225RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research

What is qualitative research? How does it
differ from quantitative research? Under
what circumstances is one type of study
more appropriate than the other? Are

there instances where one might consider a “mixed
methods” approach using elements of both? A research-
er beginning a project faces a bewildering array of deci-
sions regarding the approach he or she will take to
answer the questions associated with the problem being
investigated. An analysis of peer-reviewed articles pub-
lished in Radiologic Technology from September/
October 2010 to July/August 2016 yielded 90 total arti-
cles. Quantitative survey studies or other quantitative
research (eg, correlative studies) represented the largest
percentage of articles, 36.6%. Experimental studies rep-
resented 24.4% of articles; 20% were literature reviews,
and 13.3% were case or technical reports. Mixed-
methods studies (using both qualitative and quantita-
tive methods of data collection) represented 3.3%, while
purely qualitative studies represented only 2.2% of pub-
lished articles.

Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative studies are appropriate for examining

relationships between and among variables, describing
trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population, as well as
for testing the effects of a treatment or intervention on
an outcome.1 Although quantitative analysis allows for a
high degree of precision in research, it represents a 2-D

view of findings as compared to the rich, deep descrip-
tions offered by qualitative approaches. The role of the
researcher in a quantitative study is to remain “distant
and independent of what is being researched” (ie, as
objective as possible).2

Conversely, in qualitative research, the researcher is
aware of the socially constructed nature of reality and
is embedded intimately in the context of the study—
the research setting, participants, and the data being
collected. The qualitative researcher is a reflexive prac-
titioner, aware of his or her own political and cultural
perspectives, yet willing to engage in self-questioning
and self-understanding.3 Qualitative research gets at
the how and why of the story, in ways that quantitative
research cannot. The key concept of the study is often
referred to as central phenomenon in scholarly writ-
ings. Other important differences include sample size,
methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
Researchers within the radiologic science profession
might consider using qualitative approaches alone or in
combination with quantitative methods when planning
future studies. Many comprehensive resources provide
detailed information on designing qualitative research
studies, and some are referenced in this column.

Developing the Qualitative
Research Question

Developing the research question is the initial
step in any research project. This frames the outline

Jennifer Yates, EdD, R.T.(R)(M)(BD)
Tricia Leggett, DHEd, R.T.(R)(QM)

Qualitative Research: An Introduction

226 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Qualitative Research: An Introduction

methods include interviews, focus groups, observations,
reviewing document studies, key informants, alterna-
tive (authentic) assessments, and case studies.

An interview, rather than a paper-and-pencil or elec-
tronic survey, is selected when interpersonal contact
is important and when opportunities for follow-up of
interesting comments are desired. Interview data can be
recorded digitally (with participant permission), sum-
marized in notes, or a combination of these methods.
Detailed recording is a necessary component of inter-
views because it forms the basis for analysis.4

A focus group can be considered an in-depth group
interview. Typically, a group of about 10 participants
is invited to a session that lasts approximately 2 hours.
The researcher initiates discussion by asking open-
ended questions so that the participants are motivated
but not guided to discuss the relevant topic. The
researcher listens and observes the discussions that
follow, intervening as little as possible as long as the
discussion remains on the topic. In such discussion,
the participants are expected to unfold their knowl-
edge and express their opinions about the subject
matter.

Observations are guided by a structured protocol
that can take a variety of forms, ranging from the
request for a narrative describing events to a checklist
or a rating scale of specific behaviors or activities. This
level of standardization helps assure consistency with

and process for the work to follow. Once the area for
investigation is determined, the research problem will
be posed. The research problem is a topic or issue that
specifies the value of the research study. In general,
completion of sentences such as, “This study needs
to be conducted because…” or “The topic for this
research is…,” indicate the beginnings of the qualita-
tive research study. Next, narrowing the broad topic
is the basis for the purpose statement (a statement
that provides the premise for the research project).
The purpose statement typically is a single sentence
that describes the specificity of the research study
(eg, the central phenomenon, the participants, and
where the researchers are located).1 The framework
of the purpose statement might look similar to this
example:

The purpose of this qualitative study is to
understand the primary motivating factor
for graduating radiologic science students in
ambulatory care clinical settings.

Once the purpose statement is created, the research-
er must develop qualitative research questions. For
qualitative research, a central question often is followed
by 3 to 5 subquestions to further refine various aspects
of the central question. The central question typically
is open-ended to avoid being too focused or making
assumptions before data collection. The more specific
subquestions are categorized as to either issue or proce-
dure and follow the same guidelines as with the central
question. Issue subquestions narrow the focus of the
central question and typically are placed immediately
after the central question; the procedures’ subquestions
might evolve after the research has begun because they
address the process of the study and data analysis. It is
important to note that subquestions assist in the formu-
lation of surveys, structured interviews, or focus groups
needed to collect pertinent data. The Box illustrates
some common guidelines in developing qualitative
research questions.1

Qualitative Data Collection
Qualitative data collection often is open-ended to

produce emerging themes during analysis. Common

Box

Central and Subquestion Guidelines for
Qualitative Research1

 Begin with words such as how or what.

 Tell the reader what you are attempting to discover,
generate, explore, identify, or describe.

 Ask “what happened?” to help craft your description.

 Ask “what was the meaning to the participants?” to
better understand the results.

 Ask “what happened over time?” to explore the process.

 Avoid words such as relate, influence, impact, effect,
and cause; these words typically are associated with
quantitative research studies.

227RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Yates, Leggett

studies can be validated by 1 of 3 generally accepted
methods, or ideally by triangulation, which uses at least
2 of the methods. The first method to ensure valid data
is the use of contradictory evidence, or deviant cases.
This mode investigates any data that could be incor-
rect or the analysis might be misrepresented because of
potential researcher bias. This is especially important
because the data collection process needs to be as objec-
tive as possible. The next method is respondent validity,
which provides the participants the opportunity to
review the data and subsequent analysis for accuracy.
Any inaccuracies can be corrected before further
progress in the research study. Constant comparison is
the final method, and it affords the ability to compare
individual data sets to a larger set of data for consistency
and continuity. This truly promotes a holistic analysis
of the data.7

Designing a Qualitative Research Study
Case Study Research

Case reports appearing in Radiologic Technology
often involve the in-depth presentation of a particular
imaging challenge or patient pathology. Case study
research as a qualitative approach uses a particular
design and methods of data collection. Typically,
“case studies are the preferred strategy when ‘how’
or ‘why’ questions are being posed, when the inves-
tigator has little control over events, and when the
focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some
real-life context.”8 Case study research can be used to
explore, describe, or explain.8 The case might involve
an individual, multiple individuals, groups, organiza-
tions, or a particular event.9 A multiple case study,
as the name implies, uses sets of cases. The research
setting is essential in providing context for the study.
Often, multiple methods of data collection are used
to triangulate findings. Sometimes quantitative meth-
ods of data collection and analysis are used as well.
An example of a multiple case study research pub-
lished in Radiologic Technology is Mazal and Ludwig’s
study, “Using Mobile Electronic Devices to Deliver
Educational Resources in Developing Countries.”10
Four users of electronic radiography texts represented
the set of cases. Email-based, open-ended dialogue

the data collection. Field notes frequently are used
to provide more in-depth background or to help the
observer remember events, if a form is not completed at
the time of observation. Field notes contain the descrip-
tion of what was observed and must be factual, accurate,
and without bias.4

Incorporating social media into qualitative research
is emerging as evidenced by the development of
an innovative data collection meta-framework by
Onwuegbuzie et al.5

Qualitative Data Analysis and
Interpretation

Qualitative researchers must work directly and
intimately with their data. This usually begins with
reading interview transcripts or other textual mate-
rial multiple times to identify emerging themes and
categories. Researchers might analyze data inductively
or deductively, depending on whether the study is
exploratory or confirmatory. Many qualitative studies
include elements of both. “Inductive analysis involves
discovering patterns, themes, and categories in one’s
data.”3 Deductive analysis begins with an existing
framework. Often, researchers begin data analysis
inductively, as a means for developing the conceptual
framework and resulting codebook. The researcher
then can move forward in a deductive manner, using
the codes to identify and categorize pertinent quotes
within the transcripts. Interpretation is the research-
er’s process of making meaning of patterns, themes,
and categories. In so doing, he or she determines
ways in which the results answer the research ques-
tions and sometimes the results raise new questions.
Some researchers code and extract pertinent passages
from the transcript manually, some use the com-
ment feature in Microsoft Word, and some use more
sophisticated software programs designed to assist
with qualitative analysis, such as Atlas.ti, NVivo, and
NUDIST.

Validity of Qualitative Research
The validity of qualitative research refers to the

extent to which findings accurately depict the phenom-
enon it is designed to investigate.6 Qualitative research

228 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Qualitative Research: An Introduction

of a participatory action research article published in
Radiologic Technology is the Lopez et al study, “Florida
Mammographer Disability Training vs Needs.”14 That
study was designed to address the problem of lack of
access to screening mammography for women with dis-
abilities. Demographic and qualitative interview data
were collected from 3 participant groups: mammogra-
phers, other health care providers (eg, physicians and
nurses), and women with disabilities. The researchers
concluded that mammographers were receiving disabil-
ity training primarily on the job, and that they would
benefit from training in “both technical and social
aspects of performing mammography on women with
disabilities, including positioning, disability etiquette,
and disability advocacy.”

Narrative Research
Narrative research is best described as the study

of lives through storytelling.15 Narrative research can
be a singular approach or a research method of data
collection used with other qualitative approaches.
It can be biographical or autobiographical and “is
best for capturing the detailed stories or life experi-
ences of a single life or the lives of a small number of
individuals.”16 In biographical narrative research, the
researcher spends considerable time with the partici-
pant, often meeting on multiple occasions to gain an
in-depth understanding of the person’s stories. In so
doing, the researcher and participant develop a col-
laborative relationship. In general, most participants
do not tell their stories in a strictly chronological order
and it is the researcher’s task to order the stories and
other data into a coherent whole. Aside from oral nar-
ratives, materials such as other people’s stories about
the person being studied, letters, emails, diaries, and
school records can be collected, analyzed, and inter-
preted. Narrative research is based on the premise that
knowledge is socially constructed and situated within
the context of the participants’ “personal experiences
(their jobs, their home), their culture (racial or ethnic)
and their historical contexts (time and place).”16 The
researcher studies himself or herself in autobiography,
and life history is the study of a person’s entire life.
Narrative research can be focused upon individuals

with each recipient represented the qualitative data
collected, analyzed, and interpreted for this study.

Participatory Action Research
Qualitative methods, in addition to their use in

research studies, can be used for evaluation purposes.
Yates used the participatory action research approach
as a means of program assessment and policy devel-
opment.11 As the name implies, participation by all
stakeholders is key to this type of research. Rather
than imposing research on “subjects,” people being
studied also participate in the research or evaluation
to varying degrees. Often a strong social justice focus
on the research study or evaluation process exists.
Participatory action research12:
 Is about the improvement of practice and creation

of knowledge in social groups.
 Can start anywhere and proceeds through com-

plete cycles of planning, acting, reflecting, and
observing.

 Involves participation in all stages of those affect-
ed by changes in social practice and discourse.

 Is participatory, often conducted by an action
group with at least one expert.

Action research is based in social inquiry and often
is used to solve a pressing problem. Participatory action
research involves collaboration and critical reflection
of the researcher’s own practices. An important feature
of participatory action research is the preservation of
the voices and practices of people being studied. Data
frequently is collected in the form of interviews, focus
groups, and written text (eg, open-ended survey ques-
tions). When used effectively, participatory action
research is a continuous cycle of “planning, acting,
observing, and reflecting”13 that results in continu-
ous improvement. The research has the potential to
work well in educational settings, particularly in pro-
grams accredited by the Joint Review Committee on
Education in Radiologic Technology, where the goal is
continuous program improvement.

Participatory action research can be effective in solv-
ing problems in imaging departments, where patient,
staff, and physician input could improve delivery of ser-
vice for continuous quality improvement. An example

229RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Yates, Leggett

of grounded theory research in medicine appeared in
Social Science and Medicine. In it, Charmaz provides
a step-by-step guide to conducting grounded theory
research by applying it to a discovery of a theory of
chronic illness.18

Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological research is “the study of the lived

experiences of persons.”16 Phenomenological studies
focus on a shared human experience, such as surviv-
ing breast cancer, experiencing the death of a child,
or winning the lottery. The researcher collects data
from participants (usually a small number) who have
experienced the phenomenon, and through the process
of analysis and interpretation, generates a descrip-
tion of the participants’ “meaning, structure, and
essence of the lived experience.”3 Qualitative data can
be collected in the form of in-depth interviews (often
multiple interviews with the each participant), open-
ended survey questions, diaries, journals, art forms,
and other media in which the participant describes
or depicts his or her experience. Phenomenological
studies frequently are used in the context of medicine
and the descriptions they provide might inform the
development of policies and practices. An example
of a phenomenological research study performed in
the context of emergency medicine was published in
the Journal of Emergency Nursing. Granero-Molina et
al focused on the lived experience of medical profes-
sionals providing end-of-life care to patients in the
emergency department.19 The authors examined fac-
tors that undermined the dignity of these patients
including “architectural and organizational character-
istics, professional’s attitudes, and decisions made by
family members.”

Ethnographic Research
Ethnographic research is the study of an entire cul-

tural group. An ethnographer “describes and interprets
the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors,
beliefs, and language of a culture sharing group.”16 The
researcher gathers information in the field. Qualitative
data frequently consists of direct observation and
in-depth interviews, although materials such as art

who have shared similar experiences or centered on
a particular research context, such as a hospital or
school.16 Charon’s “Narrative Medicine: A Model for
Empathy, Reflection, Profession, and Trust” is an
example of the narrative method used in the context
of medicine published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association.17 In the article, she stated, “The
effective practice of medicine requires narrative com-
petence, that is, the ability to acknowledge, absorb,
interpret, and act on the stories and plights of others.”
She described narrative knowledge as a process by
which physicians can share in a discourse with patients
to understand their stories and suffering: “Along with
scientific ability, physicians need the ability to listen
to the narratives of the patient, grasp and honor their
meanings, and be moved to act on the patient’s behalf.”
Through this physician–patient discourse and through
the physician’s engagement in self-ref lection, care for
sick patients can be delivered in a more sympathetic
and humane manner.

Grounded Theory Research
The purpose of grounded theory research is to

generate, rather than test, a theory.3 Grounded theory
research is characterized by an iterative process used by
the researcher. The researcher goes out to the field (ie,
the natural setting in which the participants live and
work) to collect data from individuals who share some
common experience, or phenomenon. Data collection
methods can include quantitative and qualitative data;
but qualitative methods are used more commonly.16
The researcher goes back and forth from interviews
to analysis, returning to the field to collect more data,
until the themes and categories generated are saturated
and no new information can be added. According to
Creswell, “This process of taking information from data
collection and comparing it to emerging categories is
called the constant comparative method of data analy-
sis.”16 The themes and categories centered on the shared
experience of the participants (the phenomenon) are
then used to identify causal conditions, strategies, inter-
vening conditions, and consequences. In this manner,
a hypothesis or theory emerges. Therefore, the theory
is “‘grounded’ in data from the field.”16 An example

230 RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Qualitative Research: An Introduction

4. Overview of qualitative methods and analytic techniques:
common qualitative methods. National Science Foundation
Web site. https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/nsf97153/chap_3
.htm. Published 1997. Accessed September 13, 2016.

5. Onwuegbuzie A, Leech N, Collins K. Innovative data
collection strategies in qualitative research. Qual Rep.
2010;15(3):696-726.

6. Fraenkel J, Wallen N. How to Design and Evaluate Research in
Higher Education. 6th ed. New York City, NY: McGraw Hill
Companies Inc; 2003.

7. Anderson C. Presenting and evaluating qualitative research.
Am J Pharm Educ. 2010;74(8):141.

8. Yin RK. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. 3rd ed.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 2003.

9. Robson C. Real World Research. 2nd ed. Malden, MA:
Blackwell; 2002.

10. Mazal JR, Ludwig R. Using mobile electronic devices to
deliver educational resources in developing countries. Radiol
Technol. 2015;86(5):490-498.

11. Yates JL. Participatory action research for program planning.
Radiol Sci Educ. 2006;11(1):7-18.

12. Hughes I. Action research electronic reader: introduction.
Action Research & Action Learning Web site. http://www
.aral.com.au/arow/rintro.html. Published 1997. Accessed
September 7, 2016.

13. Action research. University of Warwick Learning and
Development Centre Web site. https://www2.warwick.ac.uk
/services/ldc/resource/evaluation/tools/action/. Revised
July 10, 2012. Accessed September 7, 2016.

14. Lopez ED, Vasudevan V, Lanzone M, et al. Florida mam-
mographer disability training vs needs. Radiol Technol.
2012;83(4):337-348.

15. Sandelowski M. Telling stories: narrative approaches to quali-
tative research. Image J Nurs Sch. 1991;23(3):161-166. http://
academic.son.wisc.edu/courses/N701/week/sandelowski
_tellingstories.pdf Accessed September 7, 2016.

16. Creswell JW. Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design:
Choosing Among Five Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publishing; 2007.

17. Charon R. The patient-physician relationship. Narrative
medicine: a model for empathy, reflection, profession, and
trust. JAMA. 2001;286(15):1897-1902.

18. Charmaz K. ‘Discovering’ chronic illness: using grounded
theory. Soc Sci Med. 1990;30(11):1161-1172.

19. Granero-Molina J, Díaz-Cortés MM, Hernández-Padilla
JM, Garcia-Caro MP, Fernández-Sola C. Loss of dignity in
end-of-life care in the emergency department: a phenom-

forms and cultural artifacts might be useful as well. A
fascinating and heartbreaking example of an ethno-
graphic study relating to medicine is captured in Anne
Fadiman’s book, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall
Down: A Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the
Collision of Two Cultures.20 The book describes a Laotian
refugee family’s experiences in the American medical
system through the course of long-term treatment of a
child with severe epilepsy. The clash of cultures creates
profound challenges in caring for the child, with devas-
tating consequences.

Conclusion
The intent of this column is to provide an introduc-

tion to qualitative research and to present an overview
of a limited number of possible approaches. Increasing
the number of qualitative and mixed-methods stud-
ies published in Radiologic Technology will enrich the
body of knowledge within the radiologic science pro-
fession.

Jennifer Yates, EdD, R.T.(R)(M)(BD), is program
director for Merritt College in Oakland, California. She is
a member of the Radiologic Technology Editorial Review
Board and can be reached at [email protected].

Tricia Leggett, DHEd, R.T.(R)(QM), is vice president
for student success for Zane State College in Zanesville,
Ohio. She is vice chairman of the Radiologic Technology
Editorial Review Board and can be reached at tleggett@
zanestate.edu.

References
1. Creswell JW. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and

Mixed Methods Approaches. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage; 2003.

2. Abawi K. Qualitative and quantitative research. Talk pre-
sented at: Ministry of Public Health Reproductive Health
Research Methodology Training; January 3-12, 2008; Kabul,
Afghanistan. http://www.gfmer.ch/Medical_education_En
/Afghanistan_2008/pdf/Qualitative_quantitative
_research_Abawi_Afghanistan_2008.pdf. Accessed
September 23, 2016.

3. Patton MQ. Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods. 3rd
ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 2002.

231RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY, November/December 2016, Volume 88, Number 2

Writing & Research
Yates, Leggett

enological study with health professionals. J Emerg Nurs.
2016;42(3):233-239. doi:10.1016/j.jen.2015.10.020.

20. Fadiman A. The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down: A
Hmong Child, Her American Doctors, and the Collision of Two
Cultures. New York City, NY: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux;
1997.

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Second Edition.
Published by the Center for Teaching and Learning, Northcentral University, 2021

Contributors:
Marie Bakari, Jennifer Biddle, Linda Bloomberg, John Frame, Namhee Kim, Sharon
Kimmel, Jaime Klein, Paul Markham, Craig Martin, Stephanie Menefee, Eva Philpot,
Wes Rangel, Randee Sanders, Abigail Scheg, Kimberly Scott, Patricia Steiner, Robert

Thompson, Marsha Tongel, Steven Ziemba

In addition to the collaborative process that engendered this guide, it was also informed
by the qualitative methods course in the School of Business, BUS-7380 Qualitative

Business Research Design and Methodology.

For comments or suggestions for the next edition, please contact the
School of Business: [email protected]

Foreword (P1)

Introduction (P2)

Student-Chair Engagement (P2)

Qualitative Research Design (P3)

Research Questions (P3)

Case Study (P5)

Multiple Case Studies/Comparative
Case Study (P6)

Participant Selection (P7)

Interviews (P7)

Interviews: Minimum Number
Recommended (P9)

Focus Groups (P10)

Observation (P11)

Document Analysis (P12)

Hermeneutics (P12)

Phenomenological Design (P13)

Constructive Research (P15)

Ethnography (P16)

Grounded Theory (P18)

Narrative Design (P19)

Delphi Method (P20)

Mixed-Methods Research (P21)

Online Questionnaires and Unsuitable
Data Collection Practices (P21)

Interview Guides and Other
Instruments (P22)

Audio Recording and Transcribing
Interviews (P24)

Sampling in Qualitative Research (P25)

Data Saturation (P26)

Triangulation (P27)

Trustworthiness (P28)

Member Checking (P30)

Coding and Thematic Analysis (P30)

Including Data in the Findings (Chapter
4) of the Dissertation (P32)

1

Dear School of Business Community,

Welcome to the Best Practice Guide for Qualitative Research Design and Methods in
Dissertations!

With well over 600 doctoral students in the School of Business working on their dis-
sertation this year, this guide serves as an important resource in helping us shape and
implement quality doctoral-level research. Its primary purpose is to offer direction on
qualitative research in School of Business dissertations, serving students as they craft and
implement their research plans, and serving faculty as they mentor students and evaluate
research design and methods in dissertations.

We encourage you to explore this guide. It is filled with details on important topics that
will help ensure quality and consistency in qualitative research in the School of Business.
Offering support for both faculty and students, this resource covers many topics, from
those related to early stages of qualitative research design, to guidance on how to in-
clude qualitative data in a dissertation.

Thank you to the faculty and staff of the School of Business and wider NCU community
that worked to create this guide. It is a great contribution to our School, and each of
these individuals played an important role in its development.

We wish you the best on your dissertation journey!

SB Leadership Team

2

Introduction
As an accredited university, NCU aims to have ro-

bust expectations and standards for dissertations

produced by its students. This guide, developed

collaboratively by NCU School of Business (SB)

faculty in 2019, and updated in 2021, aims to

provide guidance on best practice in qualitative

research design and methods for SB dissertations.

While this guide can serve as a refresher to those

less familiar with qualitative methods, it will also

help ensure consistency in how faculty advise

students on qualitative methods. It is meant to help

ensure good practice vand rigor across commit-

tees and students.

To that end, this document is a guide to help

students when designing their research, as well as

faculty, when judging the merits of student disser-

tation prospectuses, proposals, and manuscripts.

Students should be familiar with the best practices

in this guide and apply them to their dissertation.

References and suggested reading:
Yin, R.K. (2015). Qualitative research from
start to finish. New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.

Student-Chair Engagement
Close engagement between students and facul-

ty is expected through the dissertation process.

Faculty should ensure that students are knowl-

edgeable about expectations, and students should

ensure they obtain necessary mentoring from their

Chair throughout the process. Key areas in the

dissertation sequence where closer than normal

engagement include:

• Developing chapter 1 and ensuring the re-

search questions align with the purpose statement,

problem statement, and methods.

• The IRB process.

• DIS-9902, which requires the completion of

several milestones (Chapters 2 and 3, and the

3

Developing a qualitative design requires system-

atic planning and the ability to remain flexible.

According to Maxwell (2012: 215), “The activi-

ties of collecting and analyzing data, developing

and modifying theory, elaborating or refocusing

the research questions, and identifying and deal-

ing with validity threats are usually going on more

or less simultaneously, each influencing all of the

others.” In order to develop an effective design,

qualitative research procedures must be based on

the problem, purpose, and research questions.

Specifically, the research questions must reflect

the nature of the design. In addition, the purpose

must illustrate how the study is a logical, explicit

research response to the stated problem and the

research questions. Importantly, whereas in a

quantitative study, researchers measure or test

something, in a qualitative study one explores

and understands something. The language used

to describe this exploration should not include the

word ‘prove,’ but, rather, ‘explore’ (or another

similar word).

References and suggested reading:
Maxwell, J.A. (2012). Qualitative research
design: An interactive approach. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Research Questions
Rigorous research questions help ensure a student

deeply probes and examines the issue under

investigation in the dissertation. Crafting rigorous

research questions takes time and great effort.

Typically, a student will want to have more than

one research question; but if having only one is

the best way to explore the topic, then the ques-

Dissertation Proposal). Progression data in the SB

indicates that students often need supplemental

courses (e.g. DIS-9902B) in order to complete

these milestones.

• Data collection: student and Chair should work

closely before and during data collection so that

the Chair is frequently apprised of the student’s

progress. Chairs should coach students to ensure

they are comfortable with data collection (e.g.

how to conduct interviews, with whom, and how

many).

• Writing up the findings. Chairs should ensure

students are knowledgeable about how to an-

alyze data and report their findings. See the

“Including Data in the Findings (Chapter 4) of

the Dissertation” section in this guide for further

information.

Qualitative Research Design
A research design is the ‘map’ that will guide the

study. Sufficient time and consideration should be

given to ensure that the design of a study is the

best ‘route’ for the student to take to complete the

dissertation journey. In other words, the research

design should clearly lead to answering the re-

search questions.

Regardless of the method or design that is uti-

lized, all research must be clear, concise, and

focused. Qualitative studies must demonstrate

validity within the context of the specific qualita-
tive design (e.g., credibility, dependability, trans-
ferability, trustworthiness). All research decisions
should be justified with high-quality scholarly

sources.

4

tion needs to be a rigorous question, ensuring the
topic is explored in a wholistic way.

Research questions need to be narrow and
focused, and related to the student’s degree
program and specialization. They need to be
connected to the problem statement in the disser-
tation, rooted in the literature, and reflect re-
search gaps. Having too many research questions
is not wise, as the scope of the dissertation needs
to be clear and focused. Research questions are
not yes/no questions, because if the questions
could be answered this easily, there would be no
need to conduct a study. Furthermore, research
questions should be more than ‘what’ questions
(though a ‘what’ question can be asked). Em-
phasis should be on examining the topic, not just
reporting on the topic (a dissertation is not a list
or answer to a ‘what’ question). Adding rigor
to research questions can be done by including
more complexity, such as by asking: ‘Why?,’
‘How?,’ ‘In what ways?,’ ‘To what extent?,’ or
‘What difference does X make?,’ for example.

Research questions can be considered the heart
of the dissertation–the engine that drives the
thinking behind the dissertation. As a dissertation
is a deep exploration and analysis of something,
the research questions need to relate to the past

or present (not something that may occur in the
future, as that cannot be examined presently).
Thus, great care needs to be taken with questions
that include the word ‘Can’ (as this likely might
indicate that the questions relate to a future event
that may not be adequately researchable in the
present).

An example of an inadequate research question is:

This question is inadequate because it is a yes/no
question, and it is too broad and not specific.

An example of a good research question is:

5

This question is strong because it is focused,

clearly connected to a specific topic, and rigor-

ous.

Finally, research questions are different than the

interview questions asked of the participants in

a study. Whereas research questions drive the

entire study, interview questions are a means of

data collection, and are the specific questions

asked to get data to answer the research ques-

tions. There will thus be a clear link between

research questions and interview questions.

Case Study
A case study is a study that looks, for example, at

one issue in one or more businesses or organiza-

tions. It involves in-depth exploration, guided by

the dissertation research questions. As Bloomberg

(2018: 237) states, “Case study research is typ-

ically extensive; it draws on multiple methods of

data collection and involves multiple data sourc-

es. This method culminates in the production of

a detailed description of a setting and its partic-

ipants, accompanied by an analysis of the data

for themes, patterns, and issues.”

Case studies should create rich and complex

understanding of the topic under exploration.

Bloomberg (2018) states that a case study needs

to have clear boundaries (thus, students need to

be able to articulate what the case study does

and does not include). In addition, the student

needs to provide rationale for why a particular

case is being selected (Bloomberg, 2018).

Students need to collect data from more than one

source in order to ensure deep understanding of

the case. As further described in the Triangulation

section of this guide, having two or more data

sources is required in dissertations. For example,

a student could conduct interviews and analyze

documents from the organization(s) or busi-

ness(es) examined in the study.

Students may choose to design their case study

to include interviews, document analysis (e.g.

reports or specific content on relevant websites,

though this is not a literature review of peer-re-

viewed publications, etc.), direct observations,

participant observation, and/or analyzing physi-

cal artifacts (e.g. audiovisual materials). The goal

is to ensure thick narrative description, including

6

context and important details that allow read-

ers to gain a deep understanding of the case

(Bloomberg, 2018). Importantly, the data collec-

tion methods should be closely aligned with the

research questions (Bloomberg, 2018). In other

words, data collected should directly result in

answering the dissertation research questions.

References and suggested reading:
Yin, R.K. (2017). Case study research and
applications: Design and methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Bloomberg, L.D. (2018). Case study method.
In B.B. Frey (Ed.), The Sage encyclopedia
of educational research, measurement, and
evaluation (pp. 237-239). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.

Yin, R. K. (2012). Case study methods. In APA
handbook of research methods in psychology,
Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative,
qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological
(pp. 141–155). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Multiple Case Studies/Comparative
Case Study
Multiple case studies (or a comparative case
study) analyze similarities, differences, patterns,
and themes across two or more cases (e.g. or-
ganizations, companies). Yin (1993: 34) states,
“The development of consistent findings, over
multiple cases and even multiple studies, can then
be considered a very robust finding.”

Goggin and Orth (2002: 49) state that cases in
a comparative study are purposely selected “on
the basis of similarity and comparability,” so that
they “vary on the dimensions that are theoretically

relevant” (e.g. organisation type), and yet are
“similar in as many other respects as possible.”

Comparative case studies should be carefully
designed, with justification given as to why the
research includes the cases planned for inclusion.
There should also be care in how the study is
described, as a study with multiple sites may be a
multi-site (single) case study, rather than one that
includes multiple case studies. Thus, a student

should consider if his or her design is actually a
multiple case study or a multi-site (single) case
study. This should be discussed in the dissertation.
In any case, whether it is a multiple case study,
or a multi-site (single) case study, a student needs
to clearly articulate why the cases or sites were
selected for inclusion in the study. In other words,
the student should elaborate and defend what
criteria were used to select them, and why that is
important.

References and suggested reading:
Goggin, Malcolm L., & Orth, D.A. (2002).
How faith-based and secular organizations

7

tackle housing for the homeless. Roundtable on
Religion and Social Welfare Policy.

Yin, R.K. (1993). Applications of case
study research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.

Yin, R. K. (2012). Case study methods. In APA
handbook of research methods in psychology,
Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative,
qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological
(pp. 141–155). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Yin, R.K. (2009). Case study research: Design
and methods, 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.

Participant Selection
Participants are people recruited to participate

in a study. Often, participants are those who are

interviewed. In selecting participants for a qual-

itative study, it is essential for a student to first

identify who will be included in the sample based

on the information that needs to be obtained to

answer the research questions. The student needs

to ensure that participants have experience or

knowledge about the topic being explored and

are the most appropriate choices to include in the

study. Also, students need to ensure that they will

be able to obtain access to the participants (e.g.

interviewing U.S Senators would not be a feasible

research design because it would be very unlikely

that a student could interview enough U.S. Sena-

tors to complete a dissertation). Importantly, once

participants are selected, students need to outline

how and why the participants were selected.

Interviews

Interviews are a method in which there is a con-

versation focused around interview questions or

topics that are discussed with the purpose of gath-

ering information to answer the research ques-

tions guiding the dissertation. Interviews allow the

researcher to get in-depth data from participants

in a one-to-one setting.

Structured interviews include pre-determined

open-ended questions that are asked in a prede-

termined order. For data analysis, the researcher

is able to compare and contrast the answers to

8

the specific questions. In unstructured interviews,

the questions are not predetermined. Data anal-

ysis can be more challenging given variation in

the questions that were asked. Semi-structured

interviews contain the components of both struc-

tured and unstructured interviews. Interviewers

ask pre-determined questions to be answered by

all respondents but allow for clarification and

additional questions to be asked. Typically, stu-

dents will conduct structured, or semi-structured

interviews.

Interviews may be conducted in-person or through

an online medium, such as Skype, or by phone

(not email). With the participant’s permission,

interviews should be audio recorded (see “Audio

Recording and Transcribing Interviews” elsewhere

in this guide); if interviews are conducted by

phone, the student will need to consider how to

audio record the call. Students will also need to

consider—and discuss in their dissertation—the

limitations of conducting an interview virtually, or

on the phone (rather than in person), including

what ways communication and data may have

been hindered or limited because the interview

was not conducted in person.

According to Boyce & Neale (2006), conduct-

ing interviews should follow the same general

principles of the research plan: plan, develop

instruments, collect data, analyze data, and

disseminate findings. The plan identifies who will

be interviewed and what information will be ob-

tained. Developing the instruments will guide the

implementation of the interviews. When the data

is being collected, consent should be obtained

along with an explanation of the purpose of the

interview. To analyze the data, the researcher

will transcribe all data and review the findings.

The final step is to disseminate the findings to the

stakeholders and community.

References and suggested reading:
Boyce, C., & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting
in-depth interviews: A guide for designing
and conducting in-depth interviews. Pathfinder
International Tool Series.

Easwaramoorthy, M., & Zarinpoush, F. (2006).
Interviewing for research: Tip sheet #6.
Toronto: Canada Volunteerism Institute

Yin, R.K. (2015). Qualitative research from
start to finish. New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.

9

Interviews: Minimum Number
Recommended
Several factors should be considered when de-
termining the number of interviews a researcher
should conduct in a qualitative study. Bryman
(2012) recognizes the variety of recommenda-
tions in the literature about the number of inter-
views in qualitative studies, highlighting ranges
from 20-30 and 60-150 interviews. A further

range was offered by Marshall, Cardon, Poddar,
and Fontenot (2013: 20), who argued that, in
research related to their own discipline (Informa-
tion Systems), “Single case studies should gener-
ally contain 15 to 30 interviews.” Furthermore,
in a study of 179 doctoral theses from British and
Irish universities that used the case study method,
Mason (2010) found that the average number of
interviews conducted was 36 (the mode was 40,
and the median was 33).

While the target number of interviews for which a
researcher should aim is usually not delineated in
the literature, a minimum number of interviews is
sometimes explicated. For example, the Archives of
Sexual Behavior articulated policy for the minimum
sample size for grounded theory studies published
in their journal (Dworkin, 2012). They did this so
that authors would have clarity on sample size
expectations for a grounded theory design. Thus, it
can be valuable for researchers—especially those
rather new to the field—to have some guidance on
what is expected in their discipline.

While constraints such as time and funds must be
considered, Charmaz’s (2012: 22) advice should
be given important consideration: “…learn what
constitutes excellence rather than adequacy in
your field—and beyond, if your project portends
of having larger import—and conduct as many
interviews as needed to achieve it.”

To ensure appropriate rigor and consistency with-
in NCU SB dissertations, it is recommended that
students conduct a minimum of 15-20 interviews.
A maximum number is not stated. An accurate
assessment of saturation should guide the number
of interviews conducted (see “Data Saturation” in
this guide).

The design of a qualitative study should be of an
appropriate design and nature that allows for this
recommended minimum number of interviews.
This should be considered when designing the
study, including the research questions and po-
tential site(s) where the study will take place. In
some research designs, such as phenomenolog-
ical studies (see “Phenomenological Design” in
this guide), students may wish to interview par-
ticipants more than once (with different questions
and at different times) in order to get thick and
rich data. If this is part of the research design, a
fewer number of participants may be selected, if
appropriate (because they will be interviewed at
least twice).

In all cases, saturation should be ensured (see
“Data Saturation” in this guide), and the student

should provide a clear explanation and defense

of why saturation was believed to have been

10

obtained. In addition, when possible, students are

encouraged to follow the best practice, stated by

Marshall, Cardon, Poddar, and Fontenot (2013),

of citing any previous studies that were conducted

with a similar design.

References and suggested reading:
Bryman, A. (2012). Untitled contribution,
in S.E. Baker, & R. Edwards, How many
qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices
and early career reflections on sampling
and cases in qualitative research (pp.18-20).
National Centre for Research Methods Review
Paper.

Charmaz, K. (2012). Untitled contribution,
in S.E. Baker, & R. Edwards, How many
qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices
and early career reflections on sampling and
cases in qualitative research (pp. 21-22).
National Centre for Research Methods Review
Paper.

Dworkin, S.L. (2012). Sample size policy for
qualitative studies using in-depth interviews.
Archives of sexual behavior, 41(6), 1319-1320.

Marshall, B., Cardon, P., Poddar, A., &
Fontenot, R. (2013). Does sample size matter
in qualitative research?: A review of qualitative
interviews in IS research. Journal of computer
information systems, 54(1), 11-22.

Mason, M. (2010). Sample size and saturation
in PhD studies using qualitative interviews.
Forum qualitative Sozialforschung/Forum:
Qualitative social research 11(3.8).

Focus Groups
A focus group, as described by Hair, Celsi, Ortin-

eau and Bush (2013), is a face-to-face experience

with a small group of individuals that are assem-

bled to have an interactive discussion concerning

a research topic of interest. In their dissertation,

students need to articulate why they have gath-

ered particular people into focus groups, justify-

ing the design and numbers of participants includ-

ed in their study. Students should keep in mind the

challenge entailed in attempting to gather busy

people together in the same room at the same

time. This is a challenge that needs to be consid-

ered carefully, as a student does not want to real-

ize when it is too late that gathering focus groups

is not feasible for his or her study (because partic-

ipants do not attend). Students should understand

that deciding to change the research methods

during the data collection period requires modifi-

cations to the IRB application, and IRB approval

needs to be sought again. This takes time away

from the time allotted to data collection.

Students need to justify why focus groups are the

best method for their data collection. Students

should keep in mind that multiple focus groups

will be needed in order to collect sufficient data.

Students should design their study so that the

amount of data they obtain is comparable to the

data that would be acquired in the section in this

guide discussing the minimum number of inter-

views in case study research (see the section on

11

this topic in this guide). If a study includes focus

groups as one method used (for example, in addi-

tion to interviews), fewer number of focus groups

would be acceptable.

A focus group is comprised of three steps or

phases: planning the focus group study; imple-

menting the focus group; and evaluating, analyz-

ing and communicating the results. When plan-

ning a focus group, several important elements

need to be considered: Should the focus group be

conducted online (for example, in a group Skype

call) or in a face-to-face environment? How large

should the focus group be? Who should be con-

sidered to be part of the focus group, and why?

How should qualified participants be recruited?

Should incentives be used to improve the likeli-

hood of attracting committed participants? Where

should the focus groups be conducted?

Creswell (2013) noted that successful focus
groups are interactive and, therefore, group
dynamics play a significant role. Creswell (2013)
also noted that effective focus groups are heavily
dependent on the facilitator keeping the discus-
sion focused on the primary objective of the re-
search. A student thus needs practice and training
in order to prepare for successfully conducting
focus groups. Chairs need to ensure students are
comfortable and prepared with conducting focus
groups before they begin data collection.

References and suggested reading:
Creswell, J.W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry
& research design: Choosing among five
approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications.

Hair, J.F., Celsi, M.W., Ortineau, D.J., & Bush,

R.P. (2013). Essentials of marketing research
(3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin.

Observation
Marshall and Rossman (1989: 79) define obser-

vation as “the systematic description of events, be-

haviors, and artifacts in the social setting chosen

for study.” Observation enables one to describe a

situation using all of one’s senses, thus creating a

‘written photograph’ of the situation being studied

(Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). Stu-

dents who use observation as a method need to

be cautious of the influence their presence might

bring.

It is imperative that observers take detailed and

accurate notes, to be coded and analyzed at

what could be a potentially much later date. The

notes taken will be the only record of what was

observed. So, without accurate and detailed

notes, the observation could be rendered useless.

As mentioned above, the observer should use all

five senses during the process. The environment

and setting is just as important as the situation

being observed. Finally, as is always the case,

research questions and the method to answer

the research questions must be closely linked.

If observation is a method used in a study, the

12

student should clearly delineate in the dissertation

how and why observation is the best method to

answer the research questions.

References and suggested reading:
Marshall, C., & Rossman, G.B. (1995).
Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park,
CA: Sage Publications.

Erlandson, D.A., Harris, E.L., Skipper, B.L., &
Allen, S.D. (1993). Doing naturalistic inquiry:
A guide to methods. Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Publications.

Yin, R.K. (2015). Qualitative research from start
to finish. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.

Document Analysis
Often used as a means of triangulation, document

analysis involves examining documents (which

can include those in print or online, including

websites) to extrapolate meaning, understanding,

and knowledge surrounding the topic or phenom-

enon in question. Importantly, document analysis

is not a literature review (which students complete

in Chapter 2 of the dissertation). Instead, docu-

ment analysis is a method to collect and analyze

data that will help to answer the research ques-

tions.

Because document analysis is typically used to

triangulate data, it is thus used in support of

other methods (e.g. in-depth interviews). So, for

example, if a student is doing a case study to

explore organizational decline, a student may

interview employees and also gather operational

documents to analyze. One thing to keep in mind

about this method is the ability (or inability) to ac-

cess documents. Students need to consider if they

will have permission from companies or organiza-

tions to review documents not publicly available

on the internet.

When embarking on document analysis, students

need to carefully consider, and articulate in their

dissertation, which documents (or types of doc-

uments) will be analyzed, and why. The process

for document analysis should be thought out well,

including how the documents chosen relate to the

research questions, the types of data expected

to be found within the documents, and how this

data collection method fits with the other form(s)

of data collection (e.g. interviews) planned for the

study. The process should be systematic and clear.

As Bowen (2009: 38) states, “the researcher

should make the process of analysis as rigorous

and as transparent as possible. Qualitative inqui-

ry demands no less.”

References and suggested reading:
Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as
a qualitative research method. Qualitative
research journal, 9(2), 27-40.

Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics refers to the interpretation of text.

Through a hermeneutical study, a researcher

interprets ‘sacred’ text in a manner that captures

the essence of the human experience. Since the

inception of hermeneutics, it has been used effec-

tively by more than one academic discipline to

interpret religious scriptures, laws, music, poetry,

and more. For a student interested in interpreting

text for deeper meaning, the references below

13

are a valuable starting point. For the newcomer

to hermeneutics, Schmidt’s Understanding Herme-

neutics is the best place to begin. If hermeneutics

is a critical element of a dissertation, a student

should include a discussion of hermeneutics in the

dissertation, including how he/she will follow best

practices in the literature.

References and suggested reading:
Davey, N. (2012). Unquiet understanding:
Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics.
Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Schmidt, L.K. (2016). Understanding
hermeneutics. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.

Thiselton, A.C. (2009). Hermeneutics: an
introduction. Grand Rapids, MI: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company.

Phenomenological Design
The phenomenological research design (or phe-
nomenological study) is focused on examining a
phenomenon, or specific experience, and how
it affects people, such as people who have been
affected by an event. This phenomenon must have
a business or administration-related context, de-
pending on the student’s specialization.

Understanding the effect of an event (the
phenomenon) requires the researcher to
identify individuals who had a specific type of
experience that was directly related to the event.
If a student chooses a phenomenological design,
the design should be clearly defended in the
dissertation, with clear reason as to why the
design was selected, and what phenomenon will

be explored.

All participants a student interviews must have

lived experiences related to the central phenom-

enon under study. Research questions guiding

a phenomenological design should allow for all

aspects of the experience under study to emerge

from the participants’ experience.

In a phenomenological study, a student is likely to

visit with participants individually (over multiple

interviews of at least one hour each). Students

should collect rich narrative and observational

data (i.e. field notes), and ensure immersion in

each participant’s world. The focus should be

on thorough description, and homing in on the

phenomenon under examination (Bevan, 2014).

Bevan (2014: 142-143) states that the focus of

14

this design “is one of accurately describing and

thematizing experience in a systematic way. It

uses themes of contextualizing experience, appre-

hending the phenomenon, and clarification of the

phenomenon.”

At the end of each interview, it is recommended

that the student complete an entry in a research

journal, where reflections on the interview are

entered. In order for this to be done well, detailed

content and reflections should be added to the

journal (which can be a Microsoft Word file, etc.)

as soon as possible after each interview is complet-

ed. This journal will be especially beneficial when

developing themes for meanings behind the words

of the participants (when analyzing data). The

following research journal template can be used:

15

In describing the interview process, Bevan (2014)

summarized another scholar’s approach (Seid-

man, 2006), which included interviewing the

same person 3 times. The first interview focused

on the interviewee’s life history, which provided

context. The second interview focused on recon-

structing the experience, including the relation-

ships and structures relating to the experience.

The final interview focused on how the interview-

ee reflected on the meaning of the experience.

A student should evaluate if phenomenology is the

correct method to be used for his or her disserta-

tion, and should clearly outline the projected inter-

views planned to explore the phenomenon under

examination. As stated earlier in this guide (see

“Interviews: Minimum Number Recommended”), it

is recommended that students conduct a minimum

number of 15-20 interviews in a qualitative study.

The reason is to ensure thick and rich data is col-

lected about the phenomenon explored. If inter-

viewing a fewer number of participants better fits

the research design (or this number is not practi-

cal because few participants have experienced

the phenomenon), then it is recommended that

students interview a minimum of 8-10 participants

twice (or, potentially, interview a fewer number of

participants 3 times each, if the phenomenon is

experienced by a very small number of people).

Students should ensure that the sample size and

number of interviews conducted is determined

from saturation (see “Data Saturation” in this

guide), continuing data collection until saturation

is reached. If multiple rounds of interviews are

planned, different questions should be asked

in each round. The interview questions should

be derived from the central research question(s)

about participants’ lived experiences relative to

the phenomenon under study.

This design should only be used for deeply ex-

ploring experiences and phenomena. It involves

a different approach than the typical act of sitting

down and talking with interviewees about a par-

ticular topic or issue.

Phenomenology is deeply rooted in a philosoph-

ical base, as well as being a research method-

ology. The intent of a phenomenological study is

to uncover, describe and interpret the essence of

experience and to provide greater insight and

understanding to the essence of the experience

under study.

Data analysis in a phenomenological study

should follow a thematic analysis process. This

process allows students to analyze the data via

coding (see “Coding and Thematic Analysis” in

this guide).

References and suggested reading:
Bevan, M.T. (2014). A method of
phenomenological interviewing. Qualitative
health research, 24(1) 136–144.

Constructive Research
Constructive research refers to research that has,

at its focus, a problem-solving mission. It is aimed

at producing solutions to both practical and theo-

retical problems (Oyegoke, 2011). As Oyegoke,

(2011: 576) states, “The identified research prob-

lems are used to propose research questions that

address the problem. The questions are solved by

16

developing or constructing a solution which will

be operationalised to determine its workability

and appropriateness.”

It is recommended that a constructive research dis-
sertation be understood and designed as a case
study (see “Case Study” in this guide). Guidance
on case study, including triangulation, should thus
be followed in constructive research. Oyegoke
(2011) identifies six phases of a constructive
research project: 1) problem identification; 2)
in-depth understanding of the topic; 3) construc-
tion of a solution; 4) justification of the construct;
5) highlighting both the theoretical and practical
contributions; and 6) examining the scope of

applicability.

While those who may actually use the solution

constructed in a project are ideally involved in its

design, as well as the strategy for how it will be

applied (Oyegoke, 2011), given that a disserta-

tion is a single-person project, a student should

consider ways to feasibly include and integrate

input from these individuals throughout the study.

References and suggested reading:
Oyegoke, A. (2011). The constructive research
approach in project management research.
International journal of managing projects in
business, 4(4), 573-595.

Ethnography
The objective of the ethnographic researcher

is to gain an in-depth understanding about the

activities of a group under study and how their

activities are influenced by the culture within the

group. This is done by becoming immersed as a

participant in their daily activities. The researcher

must be immersed in the culture or the situation to

observe the culture in its natural environment. In

the field of business, this could be a business’s or

organization’s culture. The researcher seeks to

document the culture, practices and perspectives

of the group or community studied while partici-

pating within and observing the group or commu-

17

nity in its regular setting (Draper, 2015). Data col-

lection methods include unstructured observations

and informal inquiries while the researcher serves

as a participant. Data collection often includes

formal interviews, direct observations, document

reviews and focus groups when the researcher

acts as an outside observer (Draper, 2015). The

ethnographer normally will develop an extensive

set of field notes during the time serving as a

participant within the group, and as an observer

of the group setting.

Ethnography, as a qualitative research design,

has the intent to advance understanding about

how a group or community views the world in the

context of the beliefs, traditions and customs of

that group or community (Reeves, Kuper & Hodg-

es, 2008). Ethnography has its origins in an-

thropology and sociological research; however,

ethnography in 2019 involves a variety of con-

texts and settings, including healthcare, educa-

tion, businesses, and other organizations (Reeves,

Kuper & Hodges, 2008).

To facilitate the inductive analysis employed

in ethnography, the collected data often is fac-

tored into some combination of the following

8 dimensions: space, or physical layout, of the

setting; a description of the group or community

participants; the set of activities occurring in the

setting; tangible objects present; specific actions

of individuals present in the setting; time and/

or sequencing of actions; goals or objectives

people establish in the context of the setting; and

specific emotions expressed by participants while

in the setting (Reeves, Kuper & Hodges, 2008).

The researcher uses interpretive and descriptive,

systematic structures demonstrated as credible to

conduct the analyses of qualitative data (Patton,

2015). The objective of the analysis is to devel-

op interpretations of the meanings of activities

observed in the group or community setting in

the context of the beliefs, traditions and customs

established by the group or community. Explana-

tions about how or why participants within the set-

ting behave as they do contribute to a rich, com-

prehensive report (Humphreys & Watson, 2009).

Because the researcher often serves as a par-

ticipant, as well as an observer, ethnography

18

research has several additional challenges when

compared to other qualitative designs (Draper,

2015). To blend into the setting requires that the

researcher build rapport with other participants

within the group or community. The researcher

should consciously bracket out any prejudgments

or biases and seek to maintain an objective view-

point throughout the time of data gathering, so as

not to skew the interpretation of the data.

Ethnography studies enable the researcher to im-

merse oneself deeply within the group or commu-

nity to obtain an in-depth and rich understanding

about social interactions and behaviors observed.

As a participant, ethnographers might acquire

data hidden from public view which explains fur-

ther the behavior within the group or community

studied (Draper, 2015).

Importantly, because ethnography requires immer-

sion for a significant period of time, this research

design is likely not suitable for most NCU stu-

dents.

References and suggested reading:
Draper, J. (2015). Ethnography: Principles,
practice and potential. Nursing standard,
29(36), 219-225.

Humphreys, M., & Watson, T. (2009).
Ethnographic practices: From ‘writing-
up ethnographic research’ to ‘writing
ethnography’. Organizational ethnography:
Studying the complexities of everyday life, 40-
55.

Patton, M.Q. (2015). Qualitative research &
evaluation methods: Integrating theory and

practice (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.

Reeves, S., Kuper, A., & Hodges, B.D.
(2008). Qualitative research methodologies:
Ethnography. British medical journal,
337(7668), 512-514.

Grounded Theory
Grounded theory (GT) is an inductive process

whereby analysis of collected data allows the

researcher to produce theory explaining the

phenomenon in question. In 1967, Glaser and

Strauss discovered this approach while research-

ing terminal illness. According to Charmaz and

Mitchell (2001), the process is characterized

by five general characteristics: (1) Simultaneous

data collection and analysis; (2) Searching for

emerging themes via early analysis; (3) Discov-

ering basic social processes within the data; (4)

Explaining those processes via inductive construc-

tion of abstract categories; and (5) Integrating all

of the above into a theoretical framework specify-

ing causes, conditions, and consequences of the

process(es).

There is a hidden challenge in grounded theory

research that makes this design less ideal for dis-

sertation-type research: to fully develop a theory,

the researcher must repeatedly test the emergent

theory to establish its true existence. Grounded

theory studies are time-consuming because repeat-

ed measures are required to confirm the existence

of the theory. It is a very rigorous method, but

once it is conducted well, it can contribute to the

foundations of theory building. Because of the

time it takes to conduct this type of study, it is not

19

recommended for an NCU dissertation.

For an in-depth review of GT, please refer to the

article listed below by O’Connor, Carpenter &

Coughlan (2018). In this article, the authors re-

view both the classic and constructivist viewpoint

surrounding GT, and the main tenets of properly

executing a GT study.

References and suggested reading:
Charmaz, K., & Mitchell, R.G. (2001).
Grounded theory in ethnography. In P.
Atkinson, A. Coffey, S. Delamount, & J. Lofland
(Eds.), Handbook of ethnography (pp. 160-
174). London, UK: Sage Publications.

O’Connor, A., Carpenter, B., & Coughlan,
B. (2018). An exploration of key issues in
the debate between classic and constructivist
grounded theory. Grounded theory review
7(1), 90-103.

Narrative Design
The narrative design is used when the researcher

is trying to describe the lives of subjects or partic-

ipants, told by the subjects or participants them-

selves. The use of narrative design allows for the

emergence of voices that may otherwise not be

heard. It provides a means to understand and pres-

ent real-life experiences as told through the stories

of those who lived those experiences. The story-tell-

ing approach of narrative design allows for deep,

rich descriptions of experience and the meanings

of the experience to emerge and be shared. Exe-

cuting this type of research can be time-consuming

because of the number of hours that must be spent

with the participants to gather data.

This design uses stories told in the autobiograph-

ical words of the participant. The narrative

approach allows participants to share their ex-

periences and for the researcher to further exam-

ine multiple experiences in an effort to shape a

common true story through a collaborative effort

of participants and researcher. It focuses on the

participant creating a story based on the internal

processing of their own self-awareness, the deep

learning that resulted from reflection, and external

consequences as well as internal development as

a result of change (Connelly, & Clandinin, 1986;

Creswell, 2008; Mahler, 2008).

The researcher actively participates in the study

by interacting with the participants, thereby

becoming immersed in the study as they partic-

ipate in the telling of the stories of their partici-

pants. Semi-structured interviews are conducted

with each participant, transcribed, and coded to

capture significant insights into their behavior. A

descriptive vignette on each participant is devel-

oped from the coded transcriptions and review of

the audio recordings. Participants are invited to

reflect on their profile and provide any follow-up

comments.

20

In many ways, narrative design can appear sim-

ilar to phenomenological studies (See “Phenome-

nological Design” in this guide). In phenomenol-

ogy, the focus is on the essence of a particular

experience, while in narrative design the focus is

on a chain of experiences and the connection of

the events within the experiences.

If a student chooses a narrative design, the choice

should be clearly defended in the dissertation,

with clear reason as to why the design was select-

ed. Furthermore, the student will need to clearly

articulate a plan for how to gather rich data that

is comparable to the data that would be obtained

in a case study (see “Interviews: Minimum Num-

ber in a Case Study Design” in this guide). This

may be done by conducting multiple interviews

with the same person, for example.

References and suggested reading:
Connelly, F.M., & Clandinin, D.J. (1986).
On narrative method, personal philosophy,
and narrative unities in the story of teaching.
Journal of research in science teaching, 23(4),
293-310.

Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research:
Planning, conducting and evaluating qualitative
& quantitative research (4th Ed.). New Jersey,
NJ: Pearson Education.

Mahler, E.B. (2008). Defining career success
in the 21st century: A narrative study of
intentional work role transitions. ProQuest.

McAlpine, L. (2016). Why might you use
narrative methodology? A story about
narrative. Eesti Haridusteaduste Ajakiri.
Estonian Journal of Education, 4(1), 32-57.

Delphi method
When students wish to employ a research method

that is untraditional for a qualitative study, they

need to ensure the data they collect will be rich

and rigorous; in addition, a similar level of work

as a more traditional qualitative study needs to be

involved.

For students wishing to do a Delphi Method study,

it is recommended that 15-20 panelists be inter-

viewed in a face-to-face meeting (or via zoom or

the telephone, etc.) in the first round, after which

another type of data collection method (after the

participants are interviewed) could gather addi-

tional data from these same participants.

21

While a Delphi study focuses on forecasting and

the unknowable future, a doctoral dissertation

focuses on a problem or issue—in the past or

present (examined empirically). Therefore, at least

one research question that aligns with a tradition-

al dissertation focus (related to empirical explora-

tion of something in the past or present) should be

included in the dissertation.

Using this approach, the Delphi Method can be

adapted to be a design appropriate for a qualita-

tive doctoral dissertation. Students should ensure

they conduct adequate research on the Delphi

Method before choosing this method.

Mixed-Methods Research
Mixed-methods research relates to a study that

involves both qualitative and quantitative data. It

uses the combination of qualitative and quantita-

tive methods to better understand the given re-

search problem (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).

Ivankova, Creswell & Stick (2006) advocated the

need for mixed-method research design in cases

where the research problem could not be ade-

quately addressed with either method in isolation.

Mixed-methods research is not a recommended

research method approach at Northcentral Uni-

versity. The use of this method bestows undue

complexity and time burden on the doctoral can-

didate. However, because of its rigor, it should be

understood for future reference.

References and suggested reading:
Creswell, J.W., & Plano Clark, V.L. (2011).
Designing and conducting mixed methods
research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.

Ivankova, N.V., Creswell, J.W., & Stick, S.L.
(2006). Using mixed-methods sequential
explanatory design: From theory to practice.
Field methods, 18, 3-20.

Sale, J.E. M., Lohfeld, L.H., & Brazil, K. (2002).
Revisiting the quantitative-qualitative debate:
Implications for mixed-methods research.
Quality and quantity, 36(1), 43-53.

Online Questionnaires and Unsuitable
Data Collection Practices
Qualitative research methods need to be rigorous

and in line with good practices of the wider aca-

demic community. One unsuitable data collection

practice for a dissertation with a qualitative re-

search design is sending out online questionnaires

to participants, including a questionnaire with

open-ended questions for participants to write or

type their answers, as these methods do not allow

for students to obtain thick and rich data (nor

nuances in responses) needed for doctoral-level

qualitative research. Instead of a questionnaire

for participants to write their answers, students

should develop an interview guide for use in in-

terviews or focus groups that are audio recorded

and transcribed (see “Interview Guides and Other

Instruments” in this guide).

Demographic questions, etc. can be asked during

an interview through a questionnaire (e.g. at the

beginning or the end of an interview), or before

an interview is scheduled (for example to help in

selecting interview participants), but a question-

naire should not replace an interview (because

22

this type of instrument does not result in gener-

ating thick and rich data, which is needed for

thorough inquiry in qualitative research, allowing

the student to acquire enough data to answer the

dissertation’s research questions).

Chairs and SMEs should guide students in select-

ing an appropriate qualitative data collection

method. Remember that the value of a qualitative

design includes the rich data obtained through

data collection. Therefore, methods, such as in-

depth interviews, should be used to obtain rich

qualitative data.

Another unsuitable practice for a doctoral dis-

sertation is designing the study to be a literature

review. The literature review should be one chap-

ter of the dissertation. The literature is not the data

in a dissertation. Thus, data that may be included

in a journal article is not an acceptable form of

data for a student’s dissertation. The literature is

an important part of the dissertation, as it informs

theory, and helps in the interpretation and anal-

ysis of the findings. But it is not the data itself.

It should not be confused with the data that is

collected or used in a dissertation. It is valuable

to note that the method of Document Analysis (see

“Document Analysis” in this guide) is different

than a literature review.

Interview Guides and Other Instruments
Instruments created and used in qualitative re-

search are distinctly different from what are used

in quantitative studies. Qualitative instruments

include open-ended questions and must be struc-

tured so that the researcher is collecting deep

and broad data to fully understand the research

questions. In most cases, an instrument should be

designed to extract specific experiential informa-

tion from participants.

Data collection questions (the questions created

for the interview guide) are different than the

research questions in the dissertation. The pur-

pose of data collection questions is to provide

data to answer the research questions. Thus, there

is a clear link.

23

Data collected should be relevant and compre-

hensive enough to answer the research questions.

To gather enough data to answer the research

questions, the data collection questions need to

encourage respondents to provide accurate, in-

depth information.

It is a good idea to develop a crosswalk to show

the relationship between the research questions

and data collection questions. This could be in the

form of a table, or a figure, and should include

key concepts and terms.

A student should polish data collection questions

by ensuring they are open-ended and evoke flow-

ing information, carefully reviewing them to en-

sure they are not answerable with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’

response. Furthermore, questions should address

only one topic at a time. They should also not be

biased, or in any way influence the participant.

Questions should be conversational.

Interviews are social experiences. It is important

to establish and maintain a positive, respectful

social experience. A warm-up question should

be included. If the first question is easy to un-

derstand and answer, and non-threatening, then

the respondent will be encouraged to continue.

However, if the first question is too difficult, em-

barrassing, or threatening, then the respondent

will become distrustful and draw away from the

experience. Probing questions should also be

included as a means to solicit additional infor-

mation or to further explore an unclear response.

A probing question might be as simple as, “Can

you tell me more about that?” This is one reason

why online questionnaires are unsuitable for qual-

itative research (see “Unsuitable Data Collection

Practices” in this guide).

Students should ensure that the order of the

questions on the interview guide is logical. If a

break in topic is necessary, then a break for the

respondent could be introduced. Any reflective or

uncomfortable questions can be included about

two-thirds through the interview.

A student should consider asking four or more

persons to review data collection questions before

they are finalized and before interviews begin.

Three or more of these persons should represent

the target population, and one or more should

have experience in developing data collection

24

questions. These reviewers can be asked: Are the

questions clear? Is wording used in the questions

understandable to the target population? Does the

terminology have a shared meaning for the target

population? Are questions respectful of the target

population? Are questions free of bias and with-

out influence? Are there extraneous questions that

do not address the research topic and purpose?

Note: Persons acting as reviewers of the questions

should not be participants in the actual study.

A pilot study is a ‘test run’ or mock activity that

includes actual participant responses to the data

collection questions. Pilot studies require IRB ap-

proval before the study is performed. Pilot studies

are beneficial and might be considered to prac-

tice implementation, become comfortable with the

interview process, and to ensure the questions are

phrased well. The first three interviews may be

treated as a pilot study, adjusting the questions,

as necessary, after these first interviews.

Audio Recording and Transcribing
Interviews
Audio recording interviews is an important part

of the interview process, and is expected. This

should be done with permission. Recording inter-

views can be done in several ways, such as with

a voice recorder app on a cell phone. Students

should ensure beforehand that the chosen record-

ing device or app is compatible with the chosen

transcription method.

The microphone should not be obstructed, and
recording should be done in a quiet place, if pos

sible. Background noise can make transcribing

difficult, if not impossible, in some cases.

There are several methods available for transcrib-

ing interviews. The best way to better understand

the data is to transcribe it personally. There is

software available online that can replay an

interview at a slower speed, thus allowing it to be

typed more easily. If self-transcription is not possi-

ble, some companies offer transcription services

by a human, but these can be very costly. Alter-

natively, there are automated programs, mostly

web-based, promising anywhere from 90 – 95%

accuracy on transcript return. See below for links

to a few resources. (Note: the contributors of this

guide are in no way affiliated with any of the

below linked resources. Additionally, there are

more resources available than the ones listed

later in this section.) It is important to do a quality

check with transcripts to ensure they are accurate,

by carefully reviewing them while listening to the

audio again, and making corrections, before

beginning data analysis.

Something to think about when deciding how

audio files should be transcribed is the level of

confidentiality surrounding the interviews conduct-

ed for analysis, and this should be considered

when drafting the interview consent form.

25

Self-Transcription

Express Scribe: Transcription software for PC and
Mac. There is a free version and a paid version
of this software. As with most transcription soft-
ware, all controls can be set via keyboard, but a
foot pedal can also be used. https://www.nch.
com.au/scribe

OTranscribe: Much like both of the above-men-
tioned programs, OTranscribe is a simple tool for
self-transcribing audio and video. Hosted on the
web, this is a free service, and it enables one to
upload a file to the website. https://otranscribe.
com

Jotengine: A free website that allows the research-
er to upload an audio file and transcribe the
words. It is very simple and has easy shortcuts.
For example, it allows one to go back 5 seconds
or play the recording slowly. https://jotengine.
com/diy

Transcription Services

Rev.com: This website allows one to upload audio
files and receive a transcript in one day. The tran-
script is done by a person, not speech recognition
software. The current fee is $1.25 per minute.
https://www.rev.com

Automated Transcription

NVivo: Now the coding software, NVivo, offers

researchers an automated transcription service

that works seamlessly with their software. The

cost structure is pay-as-you-go, and starts at 50

cents per minute. NVivo is now available to NCU

students through the Student Technology Resource

Center. You can access the software through the

University Services module in NCUOne. https://
www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo/nvivo-prod-
ucts/transcription

Trint: Audio and video files can be uploaded into

Trint for immediate transcription, through the use

of artificial intelligence. From there one can edit

and distribute the transcript. Additionally, with an

iPhone, one can download a recording app that

will send the audio files to Trint. Trint is a paid

service, costing approximately $15 for one hour

of audio. https://trint.com

Otter.ai: Files can be uploaded and are automat-

ically transcribed. A (limited) free option is avail-

able. https://otter.ai/

Sampling in Qualitative Research
Researchers should recognize that each qual-

itative study is unique. Therefore, qualitative

researchers must investigate the totality of the

circumstances related to their problem, research

site, participants, legal implications, and ethics to

determine the best approach for recruitment, data

collection, and analysis. One sampling technique

does not fit all studies.

Sampling in Phenomenological Studies: consider-

ing the challenge of ensuring quality in qualitative

research, Tracy (2010) identified eight conven-

tional criteria for producing excellence. Four of

the criteria defined by Tracy related to the depth

of inquiry, specifically; the criteria are: rich rigor,

credibility, resonance, and significance of the

contribution. Meeting these criteria require a suf-

ficient number of participants so that the resulting

26

descriptions, discussions, and conclusions provide

rich, deep, and detailed information that is reli-

able and valid (Bernard, 2013).

Sampling in Case Studies: the sampling tech-

niques used in case studies vary and are de-

pendent on several considerations (Saunders &

Townsend, 2018). Irrespective of the technique

chosen, the researcher must justify (rationalize for

the reader) their use.

Furthermore, gaining access to a population or

subgroup for inclusion in a case study relates to

feasibility; will the researcher have physical or

virtual access to the participants?

Another consideration for case studies is the

issue of sample sufficiency. How and when does

the researcher know if the sample is enough?

Saturation is viewed as the gold standard to

determine when data are collected from enough

participants (see “Data Saturation” in this guide).

Triangulation of interview data with other identi-

fiable sources (i.e., government data, the body

of literature, reliable and related internet sources,

etc.) can lead to saturation (see “Triangulation” in

this guide). Member-checking (selective re-inter-

viewing of participants) or transcript review (each

participant reviews a transcript of their interview

to verify or correct the data) are supportive mea-

sures a researcher can use to develop a level of

thoroughness in the collection process.

References and suggested reading:
Bernard, H.R. (2013). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Cassell, Catherine, Cunliffe, A.L. & Grandy,
G. (2018). The Sage handbook of qualitative
business and management research methods:
History and traditions. Sage Publications, Ltd.

Saunders, M. & Townsend, K. (2018).
Choosing participants. In The Sage handbook
of qualitative business and management
research methods (pp. 480-492). Sage
Publications, Ltd., https://www-doi-org.proxy1.
ncu.edu/10.4135/9781526430212 https://
methods-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/
base/download/bookchapter/handbook-of-
qualitative-business-management-research-
methods-v1/i3035.xml

Tracy, S.J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight
“big-tent” criteria for excellent qualitative
research. Qualitative inquiry, 16, 837-851.
Doi:10.1177/1077800410383121

Data Saturation
Data saturation is attained when there is sufficient

information to replicate the study, when the ability

to obtain additional new information has been

achieved, and when further coding is no longer

possible (Fusch and Ness, 2015). According to

Fusch and Ness, 2015: 1411), “There is a direct

link between data triangulation and data satura-

tion; the one (data triangulation) ensures the other

27

(data saturation).”

During data collection, students should consider

if and when they have reached saturation. Stu-

dents should aim for data saturation in their data

generation. Furthermore, they should state in their

dissertation how they know that they did, in fact,

reach saturation. It is not sufficient to simply claim

saturation was reached. Instead, students need to

articulate and defend how they reached it.

References and suggested reading:
Fusch, P.I., & Ness, L.R. (2015). Are we there
yet? Data saturation in qualitative research. The
qualitative report 2015 20(9), 1408-1416.

Saunders, B., Sim, J., Kingstone, T., Baker, S.,
Waterfield, J., Bartlam, B., … Jinks, C. (2017).
Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring
its conceptualization and operationalization.
Quality and quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907.

Weller, S.C., Vickers, B., Bernard, H.R.,
Blackburn, A.M., Borgatti, S., Gravlee, C.C.,
& Johnson, J.C. (2018). Open-ended interview
questions and saturation. Plos one, 13(6), 1-18.

Triangulation
Triangulation refers to multiple approaches to

collecting data, with the goal of enhancing the

credibility – and ultimately the trustworthiness – of

a qualitative study. Triangulation leads to a more

comprehensive and rigorous understanding of the

phenomenon under study (Salkind, 2010), and is

a required part of case study research at NCU.

Furthermore, triangulation relates directly to data

saturation (see “Data Saturation” in this guide for

further discussion on this topic).

Dixon, Singleton, and Straits (2016: 329) state

that triangulation “refers to the use of two or more

dissimilar methods to address the same research

question,” where “the strengths of one method

offset the weaknesses of the other.”According

to Denzin (1978), there are four main types of
triangulation: a) data source triangulation, b)
method triangulation, c) theory triangulation, and
d) investigator triangulation. The first two types
are the most common in NCU doctoral research
studies that employ a qualitative method. Theo-
ry triangulation is used less frequently, whereas
investigator triangulation is never used (because
doctoral candidates must complete their own
dissertation research, without the assistance of
others). Data source triangulation means that the

28

student is collecting data from different categories

of people, documents, or sources. For example, a

student may interview both leaders and followers

in an organizational case study, in addition to

analyzing relevant company records about lead-

ership development programs. Method triangula-

tion involves “the use of multiple methods of data

collection about the same phenomenon” (Cope,

2014: 545) (See “Mixed-Methods Research” in

this guide). Theory triangulation means that the

student is analyzing and interpreting data from

the perspective of multiple theories. For example,

a student may explore a research question about

employee motivation by analyzing data from

interviews through the different lenses of Expec-

tancy Theory, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory, and

the Theory of Attribution.

It is possible for students to combine data source,

method and theory triangulation strategies. Stu-

dents should explain which types of triangulation

methods are used, justify the rationale, and ad-

dress the expected quality enhancements to the

overall credibility of study results.

References and suggested reading:
Cope, D.G. (2013). The use of triangulation
in qualitative research. Oncology nursing
research, 41(5), 545-547.

Denzin, N.K. (1978). The research act:
A theoretical introduction to sociological
methods. New York, NY: Praeger.

Dixon, J.C., Singleton, Jr., R.A. & Straits, B.C.
(2016) The process of social research. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Salkind, N.J. (2010). Triangulation. In
Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 1538-
1540). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications,
Ltd.

Vasileiou, K., Barnett, J., Thorpe, S., & Young,
T. (2018). Characterising and justifying sample
size sufficiency in interview-based studies:
Systematic analysis of qualitative health
research over a 15-year period. BMC medical
research methodology, 18.

Yin, R. K. (2012). Case study methods. In APA
handbook of research methods in psychology,
Vol 2: Research designs: Quantitative,
qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological
(pp. 141–155). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.

Trustworthiness
The focus of qualitative research is to develop rich

and complex explorations of phenomena based

on a relatively small number of participants, rath-

er than obtaining large, statistically representative

samples. This focus has led qualitative researchers

to substitute the traditional quantitative quality

measures of validity and reliability, in favor of

the trustworthiness quality criterion. Trustworthi-

ness, in a qualitative research study, indicates the

degree to which “the inquiry’s findings are worth

paying attention to” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985:

290).

In practical terms, this means students who use

a qualitative research method should describe

how they will address the following four aspects

29

of the trustworthiness quality criterion: credibility,

transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility of findings indicate the “confidence in

the truth of findings” (Cohen & Crabtree, 2006,

para 1). To enhance the credibility of findings, a

study may involve member checking, triangulating

collected data through use of various sources,

considering negative evidence, and integrat-

ing existing research into the analysis of study

findings to reach conclusions. Transferability of

findings indicates the degree to which findings

“have applicability in other contexts” (Cohen &

Crabtree, 2006, para 1). Dependability refers to

the degree to which research findings “are consis-

tent and could be repeated” (Cohen & Crabtree,

2006, para 1). Confirmability is a “degree of

neutrality, or the extent to which the findings of

a study are shaped by the respondents and not

researcher bias, motivation, or interest” (Cohen &

Crabtree, 2006, para 1).

Dependability and confirmability are often deter-

mined through a formal external research audit,

which may not be feasible or necessary for NCU

dissertation students. Instead, dependability can

be enhanced by consistent application of proper

qualitative data analysis techniques and through

the researcher’s awareness of personal bias.

Confirmability can be enhanced through careful

records management of all collected data; and by

maintaining a research journal to: a) document

coding rules and decisions made during data

collection and analysis; b) allow the researcher to

reflect on the research process and his or her role

during data collection and analysis; and c) articu-

late any observations and insights that may affect

the outcome of the study (Lamb, 2013).

References and suggested reading:
Cohen, D., & Crabtree, B. (2006). Lincoln
and Guba’s evaluative criteria. Robert Wood
Johnson Foundation, ‘Qualitative Research
Guidelines Project’. Retrieved from: http://
www.qualres.org/HomeLinc-3684.html

Lamb, D. (2013). Research in the first person:

30

Reflection on the research experience using a
research journal. Market & social research,
21(2), 32-29.

Lincoln, Y.S., & Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic
inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Member Checking
One of the data validation techniques qualitative

researchers can use to help eliminate bias from

their data collection and analysis is “member

checking.” According to Creswell and Miller

(2000), member checking is the most crucial step

for ensuring credibility in a study, and consists of

taking data and interpretations back to partici-

pants. Member checking can take place in multi-

ple formats. Researchers can ask participants to

review an interview transcript to ensure that the

transcript includes what the participant said (Birt,

Scott, & Cavers, 2016). It could include the re-

searcher interpreting the responses received from

the participant and then allowing the participant

to review those interpretations to ensure that the

researcher interpreted the participant’s responses

correctly (Birt, Scott, & Cavers, 2016). In the case

of a focus group, it could mean interpreting and

synthesizing the responses of the collective group

and then asking the members of the group to re-

view those interpretations to ensure the researcher

interpreted the collective responses correctly (Birt,

Scott, & Cavers, 2016).

It is important to allow the respondents to have the
ability to check researcher interpretations of their
responses to ensure that the researcher has not
interjected his or her own opinions, experiences,
or biases into their responses in a way that will
skew the results of the study. Validation of quali-
tative research is extremely important, as it helps
to eliminate a potential weakness of qualitative
research. Students should build in time in their
research plan to ensure member checking takes
place.

References and suggested reading:
Birt, L., Scott, S., & Cavers, D. (2016). Member
checking: A tool to enhance trustworthiness or
merely a nod to validation? Qualitative health
research 26, 1802-1811.

Creswell, J.W., & Miller, D.L. (2000).
Determining validity in qualitative inquiry.
Theory into practice, 39(3), 124–130.

Coding and thematic analysis
Coding is a critical part of analyzing qualitative
data, including thematic analysis. Coding is not
rocket science, but it seems to confound the qual-
itative researcher. Coding data is the disassem-
bling or deciphering step used to determine what
the data means (Castleberry & Nolen, 2018).
Saldaña explained coding as a “word or short
phrase” that represents or captures the essence of
a small section of narrative or visual data (Sal-
daña, as cited in Rogers, 2018: 4).

There are two common starting points for gener-

31

ating codes for data analysis: starting with the

framework or beginning with the data itself. Con-

sider that every research problem is framed by a

theory or a set of concepts; this is an established

research norm. This theoretical or conceptual

framework can be the starting point for gener-

ating codes for data analysis (Gläser & Laudel,

2013). The researcher who deeply understands

the framework can develop a list, or nodal map,

of elements of the theory or concepts. The next

step would be to search the data for these ele-

ments to make annotations. Pierre and Jackson

(2014) used an earlier researcher’s terminology,

‘thinking in theory,’ to describe the results of cod-

ing. Applying codes based on the framework is

how the researcher disassembles the raw data.

Alternatively, the researcher can develop codes

from the data itself, and reverse engineer the data

into a logical interpretation of the phenomenon

under study. Essentially, the researcher uses a heu-

ristic approach to determine what the data means

(Rogers, 2018). Regardless of the approach cho-

sen by the researcher, the goal is to deconstruct

the data in preparation for the next phase of data

analysis.

Caulfield (2019) identifies coding as step #2

(after becoming familiar with the data) of the pro-

cess of thematic analysis. He states that coding

is creating short labels for parts of the text in the

data (e.g. interview transcripts) that describe what

it is about. All data is coded, adding new labels

(codes) during the process (Caulfield, 2019). Af-

ter coding is completed, the third step in the the-

matic analysis process is identifying patterns and

themes among the codes. The Caulfield (2019)

resource (see below) can be viewed for an exam-

ple of how to do this. Themes are then reviewed

and further analyzed, including identifying final

themes and what they mean (Caulfield, 2019).

Regardless of whether the process of coding

is aided by a software program (e.g. NVivo),

coding is done by the researcher (the software

does not do the coding). NVivo is now available

at no cost to NCU students through the Student

Technology Resource Center. You can access the

software through the University Services module

in NCUOne. One way of coding data, if done

in Microsoft Word, is to color code text, making

all text about the same code (or topic) the same

32

color. This text can then be later analyzed, using

further colors and codes, as necessary.

References and suggested reading:
Castleberry, A., & Nolen, A. (2018). Thematic
analysis of qualitative research data: Is it
as easy as it sounds? Currents in pharmacy
teaching and learning, 10, 807-815.

Caulfield,J. (2019). How to do thematic
analysis. Available at: https://www.scribbr.
com/methodology/thematic-analysis/.

Evers, J.C. (2016). Elaborating on thick
analysis: About thoroughness and creativity in
qualitative analysis. Forum: Qualitative social
research, 17(1).

Gläser, J., & Laudel, G. (2013). Life with and
without coding: Two methods for early-stage
data analysis in qualitative research aiming at
causal explanations. Forum: Qualitative social
research, 14(2).

Maguire, M., & Delahunt, B. (2017). Doing
a thematic analysis: A Practical, step-by-step
guide for learning and teaching scholars. All
Ireland journal of higher education, 9(3).
https://ojs.aishe.org/index.php/aishe-j/article/
download/335/553

Rogers, R. (2018). Coding and writing analytic
memos on qualitative data: A review of Johnny
Saldaña’s the coding manual for qualitative
researchers. Qualitative report, 23, 889-892.

St. Pierre, E.A., & Jackson, A.Y. (2014).
Qualitative data analysis after coding.
Qualitative inquiry, 20, 715-719.

Yin, R.K. (2015). Qualitative research from
start to finish. New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.

Including Data in the Findings (Chapter 4)
of the Dissertation
In order to substantiate the claims made in disser-

tations, it is important for students to include data

they have collected within their Findings chapter.

Verbatim quotes from interviews, or content from

documents analyzed, help to substantiate summa-

ries and general conclusions students make from

the data. Including data generously throughout

Chapter 4 of a dissertation helps students better

defend their claims and justify their arguments.

Including sufficient data within the dissertation is

also necessary to demonstrate that the data was

actually collected by the student, and that the stu-

dent is knowledgeable about how to adequately

integrate data into their writing. It also can make

reading a dissertation more enjoyable and en-

gaging, and helps ensure the reader that summa-

ries and the analysis of the data are congruent

with the actual data.

Quotes should not only be used to highlight

unusual or extreme issues (though these can be

included). Instead, they should be selected on the

basis of their appropriateness to the findings, and

33

how they represent major themes of the over-

all study. While specific numbers of how many

quotes to use are not provided here, Chapter 4

(and also, in some cases, Chapter 5) should be

rich with the inclusion of this data, providing evi-

dence for the claims made in the dissertation.

References and suggested reading:
Corden, A., & Sainsbury, R. (2006). Using
verbatim quotations in reporting qualitative
social research: Researchers’ views. York, UK:
University of York.

Yin, R.K. (2015). Qualitative research from
start to finish. New York, NY: Guilford
Publications.

www.ncu.edu